Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Conversions

Figure 2.1 A typical system describing the functions in the analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog chain

Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC) and Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC) are the processes that allow digital computers to interact with these everyday signals.

Digital-to-Analog Conversion
The basic function of the digital-to-analog converter (DAC or D/A) is to convert a digital representation of a number into its equivalent analog voltage. Needed when analog devices are involved. The basic function- to convert a digital representation of a number into its equivalent analog voltage. Figure 2.2 illustrates the basic digital-to-analog function. The simplest method for digital-to-analog conversion is to pull the samples from memory and convert them into an impulse train.

Figure 2.2

Figure 2-3: Digital-to-analog portion of the signal chain

The output of the digital-to-analog converter is a stair-step output that stays constant at a particular level until the next input digital code is received. The output resembles an analog signal but further processing is required in order to arrive at the nal analog signal.

The output voltage of the D/A converter can be represented as:

Vfs : reference voltage A1 : MSB An : LSB

Figure 2. 4 shows the example of DAC circuits:

Weighted Resistor DAC Figure 2. 4

The input binary word controls the switches with an on bit indicating a closed

switch and an off bit indicating an open switch.

problems:

DAC requires accurate resistor ratios to be maintained over a very wide range of resistor values (a range of 1024 - 1 for a 10-bit DAC)

The R-2R ladder shown in Figure 2.5 avoids the problem of a wide range of resistor values.

R-2R Ladder DAC Figure 2. 5 It is well suited for integrated circuits since it requires only two resistor values R and 2R . The value of R typically ranges from 2.5 to 10 k.

This network is using the switches in a voltage switching mode and requires
low on-resistance, zero offset voltage switches. The currents flowing in the ladder change as the input word changes, power dissipation and heating in the network change, causing nonlinearity in the DAC.

inverted R-2R ladder Here the currents flowing in the ladder are constant with the digital input diverting the current either to ground or to the input of a current-to-voltage converter. This is a popular configuration used with the CMOS process, which provides

excellent switching devices.

ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
The basic functions for analog-to-digital conversion can be illustrate as shown in figure 2.6:

figure 2.6

The analog signal must be changed to a digital code so it can be recognized by a

digital system that processes the information. The basic conversion scheme for most analog-to-digital conversion is shown in Figure 2.7. The unknown voltage is connected to one input of an analog signal comparator and a time-dependent reference voltage is connected to the second input.

To perform a conversion, the reference voltage VR is varied to determine which of the 2n possible binary words is closest to the unknown voltage V.

The reference voltage VR can assume 2" different values of the form:
where : Vr is a dc reference voltage Ai are binary coefficients

The logic of the A/D converter attempts to choose the coefficients A, so that the difference between the unknown input V, and VR is a minimum; that is, choose the A, such that:

Tracking ADC: (a) block diagram; (b) example waveforms.

(a)

(b)

Successive-approximation ADC: (a) block diagram; (b) timing diagram.

Single-ramp ADC: (a) block diagram (V. = KTc; N, counter output); (b) timing diagrams.

Dual-ramp ADC: (a) block diagram; (b) control waveforms.

Parallel or Flash ADC

TABLE 2-1 ADC COMPARISON

Converter type Tracking Conversion rates
Cost/complexity
Comments

Low

Needs slowly varying input signal; output always available Needs stable input Lacks stability with time and temperature Integrates input signal; can be used at high resolution-20 bits or more Needs stable input Output always available

Counter ramp Single ramp Dual ramp

Slow Slow

Low Low

Slow

Medium

Successive approximation Parallel "flash"

Fast Fastest

Medium High

'Ramp converters have variable conversion time; successive approximation and parallel converters have fixed conversion time.