SYLLABUS R&SE

,Radar frequencies , Radar development , Applications of Radar Section - B Radar Equation : - Simple form of radar equation, Prediction of radar performance, minimum detectable signal , Receiver noise , Signal to noise ratio , transmitter power , pulse repetition frequencies & range ambiguities , System losses, Propagation effects CW & Frequency Modulated Radar:- Doppler effect, c w radar , Frequency modulated c w radar , Multiple frequency c w radar

Section - A Introduction to Radar :- Radar Block diagram and operation

SYLLABUS R&SE
Introduction, Delay line cancellers , multiple or staggered pulse repetition frequencies, Range gated doppler filters , Digital signal processing ,other MTI delay lines , Limitations of MTI performance , Non Coherent MTI , Pulse Doppler Radar , MTI from a moving platform. Tracking Radar :- Tracking with radar, Sequential lobing , conical scan , Monopulse tracking radar, tracking in range , Acquisition.
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MTI

&

Section - C Pulse Doppler

Radar

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SYLLABUS R&SE

Section - D Receivers Displays & Duplexers. Radar Receivers , Noise Figure , mixer , Low noise Front ends , Displays , Duplexers , Receiver Protectors. Introduction to Sonar

BOOKS

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS BY M. I. SKOLNIK (TMH) ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM BY KENNEDY (TMH) RADAR & SONAR ENGINEERING BY INDRASH BABBAR (MANAV RACHNA PUBLIATIONS) RADAR,SONAR AND NAVIGATION ENGINEERING BY K.K.SHARMA (SK KATARIA & SONS)
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SECTION - A

Radar

Block diagram and operation , Radar frequencies , Radar development , Applications of Radar

RADAR
WHAT IS RADAR? RADAR (RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING) IS A WAY TO DETECT AND STUDY FAR OFF TARGETS BY TRANSMITTING A RADIO PULSE IN THE DIRECTION OF THE TARGET AND OBSERVING THE REFLECTION OF THE WAVE. ITS BASICALLY RADIO ECHO .

Determining Target Location

Three pieces of information

Azimuth angle Elevation angle Distance to target

From these data radar can determine exact target location

Azimuth Angle

Angle of beam with respect to north

Elevation Angle

Angle of beam with respect to ground

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RADAR FUNCTIONS

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Distance to Target

D = cT/2 T pulses round trip time

RADAR DEVELOPMENT
1885-1888 BASIC CONCEPT OF RADAR IS AS OLD AS SUBJECT OF ELECTROMAGNETISM. HEINRICH HERTZ VERIFIED THE MAXWELL PREDICTIONS ON ELECTROMAGNETICS. .

USED APPARATUS SIMILAR TO PULSE RADAR. SHOWED THAT RADIO WAVE CAN BE REFLECTED FROM METAL OBJECTS AND REFRACTED BY A PRISM. HERTZ DID NOT PERSUE HIS WORK.
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RADAR DEVELOPMENT
1900 CHRISTIAN HULSMEYER, ASSEMBLED WHAT IS KNOWN AS MONOSTATIC PULSE RADAR. HIS RADAR DETECTED SHIPS BUT NO ONE SHOWED INTEREST IN IT SG MARCONI OBSERVED RADIO DETECTION OF TARGETS AND STRONGLY URGED ITS USE.

1920

TAYLOR & YOUNG OF US NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY OBSERVED A FLUCTUATING SIGNAL WHEN A SHIP PASSED BETWEEN TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER LOCATED ON OPPOSITE SIDES 18 OF RIVER.

RADAR DEVELOPMENT
1930 APPEARANCE OF HEAVY MILITARY BOMBER THAT GAVE RISE TO NECESSITY OF OPERATIONAL MILITARY RADAR. SOUND LOCATERS, SPARK PLUG IGNITION NOISE DETECTION/ ABANDONED. INFRA RED WAS TRIED BUT DID NOT HAVE RANGE. BISTATIC CW RADAR WAS TRIED. RADAR WAS REDISCOVERED & DEVELOPED SIMULTANEOUSLY IN US,

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RADAR DEVELOPMENT
UK, GERMANY, SOVIET UNION, FRANCE, ITALY, JAPAN & NETHERLAND. UNITED STATES: 1934 SERIOUS EFFORTS STARTED TO DEVELOP RADAR. BY 1941, 132 RADARS WERE DELIVERED TO US NAVY & 79 WERE INSTALLED ON VARIOUS SHIPS. DURING ATTACK ON PEARL HARBOUR ATTACK WAS DETECTED BUT COMMAND & CONTROL SYSTEMS WAS NOT
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RADAR DEVELOPMENT
THERE TO MAKE USE OF THE INFORMATION.

UNITED KINGDOM:
1935 FELT THE URGENCY OF RADAR DUE TO APPROACHING WAR. BY 1938,THEY PRODUCED THE CHAIN HOME RADAR. HIGH POWER MAGNETRON WAS DISCOVERED WHICH MADE IT POSSIBLE FOR RADAR TO OPERATE ON MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES.
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1940

RADAR DEVELOPMENT
GERMANY: 1940 HAD THREE MAJOR RADARS. (A) 125 MHZ FREYA, AIR SEARCH RADAR (B) WURZBURG, FIRE CONTROL RADAR (C) 500 MHZ SEETAKE SHIPBORNE RADAR GERMANY WAS AHEAD OF BRITISH & AMERICAN FORCES IN RADAR TECHNOLOGY BUT COULD NOT TAKE ADVANTAGE OF THIS FACT.
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RADAR DEVELOPMENT
U.S.S.R:

1930s

STARTRD THE DEVELOPMENT OF RADAR AND BY 1941 HAD DEPLOYED PRODUCTION & DEVELOPMENT RADARS.

THE FIRST RADAR RUS -1 WAS BISTATIC. RUS-2 WAS MONOSTATIC, TRUCK MOUNTED.

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RADAR DEVELOPMENT
ITALY: 1941 AFTER DEFEAT WHERE BRITISH RADARS WERE USED TO FIRE UPON ITALIAN SHIPS, THE PRODUCTION / DEVELOPMENT STARTED. FIRST RADAR OWL WAS 200 MHZ, SHIPBOARD RADAR. WORK STOPPED IN 1943 WHEN ALLIED FORCES RAIDED ITALY.

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RADAR DEVELOPMENT
MICROWAVE MAGNETRON MAJOR ADVANCE BY DEVELOPMENT OF MAGNETRON IN UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM. REDUCED THE SIZE OF ANTENNA AND OPENED UP HIGHER FREQUENCIES.SHIP BORNE ANTENNA COULD BE MADE.

AFTER WORLD WAR II:

USE OF DOPPLER EFFECT IN MTI EXPLOITED. HIGH POWER STABLE AMPLIFIERS LIKE KLYSTRON,TWT & SOLID STATE TRANSISTORS ALLOWED BETTER APPLICATIONS.
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RADAR DEVELOPMENT
HIGHLY ACCURATE ANGLE TRACKING RADARS
DEVELOPED. (SAR) LIKE HIGH POWER SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADARS PROVIDED HIGH RESOLUTIONS, MAP IMAGING. ELECTRONICALLY STEERED PHASE ARRAY RADARS,OFFERED RAPID BEAM STEERING. DSP AND DDP ( DIGITAL SIGNAL / DATA PROCESSING)TECHNOLOGIES MADE USE OF.

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RADAR
RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING
ANTENNA PROPAGATION

TRANSMITTED PULSE

REFLECTED PULSE (ECHO)

Target Cross Section

RADAR OBSERVABLES: TARGET RANGE. TARGET ANGLES (AZIMUTH & ELEVATION). TARGET SIZE (RADAR CROSS SECTION). TARGET SPEED (DOPPLER). TARGET FEATURES (IMAGING).
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TWO BASIC RADAR TYPES

PULSE TRANSMISSION CONTINUOUS WAVE

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components of a pulse radar system.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Synchronizer Transmitter Antenna Duplexer Receiver Display unit Power supply

PULSE RADAR COMPONENTS

SYNCHRONIZR TRANSMITTER

POWER SUPPLY

DUPLEXER

ANT.

DISPLAY UNIT

RECEIVER

ANTENNA CONTROL
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RADAR BLOCK DIAGRAM

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Radar Block Diagram and Operation

Transmitter : It is an oscillator such as magnetron .It is pulsed (turned on and off)by a modulator to generate a repititive train of pulses. The waveform generated by the transmitter travels via a transmission line to the antenna which radiates it into space. Typical radar for detection of aircraft at ranges of 200-300km has (a) peak power of about a megawatt (b) an average power of several kw (c) a PW of several microseconds (d) prf of several hundred pulses per sec. Antenna A common form of antenna is a reflector with a parabolic shape,fed (illuminated ) from a point source at its focus. The parabolic reflector focusses the energy into a narrow beam . Just as a searchlight or an auto mobile headlamp. The beam is scanned in space by mechanical means.A single antenna is 35 generally used for both transmitting and receiving .

Radar Block Diagram and Operation

Duplexer : The duplexer acts as an electronic switch. It either connects the Tx to antenna or connects the antenna to Rx. It protects the Rx from damage caused by the high power of the Tx. It serves to channel the returned echo signals to the Rx and not to the Tx. The duplexer may consist of two gas-discharge devices , one known as TR (transmit-receive) and the other an ATR(antitransmit-receive). The TR protects the Rx during transmission and the ATR directs the echo signal to the Rx during reception. Solid-state ferrite circulators and receiver protectors with gas plasma TR devices and / or diode limiters are also used as duplexers .

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Radar Block Diagram and Operation

Receiver The Rx is usually of superhetrodyne type. The first stage might be
a low-noise RF amplifier such as parametric amplifier or low noise transistor .In some radars the the i/p can simply be the mixer stage. The Rx with a low-noise front end is more sensitive ,with mixer having more dynamic range,less susceptibility to overload and less vulnerable to electronic interference. Mixer and LO convert the RF signal inti IF signal. IF is 30 / 60 MHz. BW aroun 1 MHz. The IF amplifier is usually designed as a matched filter ie its frequency response function maximises the peak-signal-to-mean-noise-power-ratio at the o/p. After this the pulse modulation is extracted by the second detector and amplified by the video amplifier to a level where it can be properly displayed on a CRT. Synchroniser Synchroniser gives the timing signals to both the TX and the display unit to provide the range zero.
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Radar Block Diagram and Operation

Display Angle information is obtained from the pointing direction of the antenna. The most common type of c-r-t display is PPI Plan Position Indicator. PPI maps in polar co-ordinates the location of the target in azimuth and range.This is intensity modulated display. Another form of display is A-scope. It plots target amplitude (yaxis) vs range (x-axis) for some fixed direction . This is deflection modulated display . Devices such as AFC and AGC are also used in receiver to enhance its performance. Power Supply : Power supply supplies the requisite power required by Tx and Rx circuits . DG set of several KVAs is used as a power supply for a radar used for surveillance /tracking purposes.
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A TYPICAL RADAR PULSE DIAGRAM

PRT
LISTENING TIME
CARRIER FREQ.

PW

PRT=1/PRF

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Range vs. Power/PW/PRF

Minimum Range: If still transmitting when return received RETURN NOT SEEN. Max Range:
AveragePow er PeakPower

PW PRT

PW *PRF

As
PW PRF

min Rh

max Rh

2. Pulse repetition frequency (PRF)

a. Pulses per second b. Relation to pulse repetition time (PRT) c. Effects of varying PRF

(1) Maximum range (2) Accuracy

3. Peak power
a. Maximum signal power of any pulse b. Affects maximum range of radar

4. Average power
a. Total power transmitted per unit of time b. Relationship of average power to PW and PRT

5. Duty cycle
a. Ratio PW (time transmitting) to PRT (time of entire cycle, time transmitting plus rest time) b. Also equal to ratio of average power to peak power

Pulse Transmission

Pulse Width (PW) Length or duration of a given pulse Pulse Repetition Time (PRT=1/PRF) PRT is time from beginning of one pulse to the beginning of the next PRF is frequency at which consecutive pulses are transmitted. PW can determine the radars minimum detection range; PW can determine the radars maximum detection range. PRF can determine the radars maximum detection range.

Determining Range With Pulse Radar

Range
c = 3 x 108 m/sec t is time to receive return

c*t 2

divide by 2 because pulse traveled to object and back

PULSE TRANSMISSION

PULSE WIDTH (PW)

PULSE REPETITION TIME (PRT=1/PRF)

PRT IS TIME FROM BEGINNING OF ONE PULSE TO THE BEGINNING OF THE NEXT PW- LENGTH OR DURATION OF A GIVEN PULSE

PRF IS FREQUENCY AT WHICH CONSECUTIVE PULSES ARE TRANSMITTED.

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PULSE TRANSMISSION
PW CAN DETERMINE THE RADARS MINIMUM DETECTION RANGE; PW CAN DETERMINE THE RADARS MAXIMUM DETECTION RANGE (IF PEAK POWER IS CONSTANT). PRF CAN DETERMINE THE RADARS MAXIMUM DETECTION RANGE.

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RADAR WAVE MODULATION

AMPLITUDE MODULATION

VARY THE AMPLITUDE OF THE CARRIER SINE WAVE

FREQUENCY MODULATION

VARY THE FREQUENCY OF THE CARRIER SINE WAVE

PULSE-AMPLITUDE MODULATION

VARY THE AMPLITUDE OF THE PULSES

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Antennae

Two Basic Purposes:

Radiates and receives RF Energy Provides Beam Forming and Focus

Must Be 1/2 of the Wave Length for the maximum wave length employed Wide Beam pattern for Search, Narrow for Track

Beamwidth Vs. Accuracy

Beamwidth vs Accuracy

Ship A

Ship B

TYPES OF RADAR

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TYPES OF RADAR

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TYPES OF RADAR

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CONTINUOUS WAVE RADAR

EMPLOYS CONTINUAL RADAR TRANSMISSION

SEPARATE TRANSMIT AND RECEIVE ANTENNAS

RELIES ON THE DOPPLER SHIFT

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RADAR FUNCTIONS

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RADAR FREQUENCY BANDS

WAVELENGTH 1 km 1m 1 mm 1 mm 1 nm

FREQUENCY 1 MHz

1 GHz

109 Hz

1012 Hz IR UV

VISIBLE

UHF
VHF 0 1

L-Band

S-Band

C-Band

X-Band

Ku K Ka W

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ALLOCATED FREQUENCY (GHZ)

30 20 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
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WAVELENGTH (CM)

RADAR FREQUENCIES
BAND NOMINAL FREQUENCY RANGE 3-30 MHZ 30-300 MHZ 300-1000 MHZ SPECIFIC FREQUENCY RANGE AS PER I.T.U

HF VHF UHF

138 144 & 216 225 MHZ 420 450 & 850 942 MHZ

L L

1-2 GHZ

1.215 1.40 GHZ

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RADAR FREQUENCIES
BAND NOMINAL FREQUENCY RANGE 2-4 GHZ 4-8 GHZ 8-12 GHZ 12-18 GHZ SPECIFIC FREQUENCY RANGE AS PER I.T.U. 2.3 - 2.5 & 2.7 3.7 GHZ 5.25 5.925 GHZ 8.5 10.680 GHZ 13.4 14.0 GHZ & 15.7 17.7 GHZ
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S C X KU

RADAR FREQUENCIES
BAND NOMINAL FREQUENCY RANGE SPECIFIC FREQUENCY RANGE AS PER I.T.U.

18 27 GHZ 27 40 GHZ 40 75 GHZ

75 110 GHZ

24.05 24.25 GHZ 33.4 36.0 GHZ 59 64 GHZ

76 81 & 92 100 GHZ
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KA V
W

RADAR FREQUENCIES
BAND NOMINAL FREQUENCY RANGE 110 300 GHZ SPECIFIC FREQUENCY RANGE AS PER I.T.U. 126 142 GHZ 144 149 GHZ 231 235 GHZ 238 248 GHZ

MM

I.T.U. INTERNATIONAL TELE COMMUNICATION UNION

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Radar frequency bands

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RADAR FREQUENCIES

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RADAR FREQUENCIES

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RADAR FREQUENCIES USES

HF :Coastal radar systems and over the horizon (OTH) radars. VHF: Very long range, suitable for detection of satellites. UHF : Very long range surveillance, suitable for ballistic

missiles and spacecraft and for AEW (airborne early warning )

L : Long range air traffic control and surveillance.(L- long ). S : Terminal air traffic control , long range weather and
marine radar ( S for search )

C : Lies between S & X. Can be described as a compromise

between the two ( hence C ).Suitable for satellite transponders and weather radar .

X : Tracking , marine , weather , medium- resolution mapping

and ground surveillance. Was used for weapon during WW2 ( hence X as in cross-hairs .

RADAR FREQUENCIES USES

Ku: High resolution mapping, satellite altimetry.frequency just

under K band (hence U ) .

K : From German kurz ,meaning short. Limited use due to

absorption by water vapour, so Ku & Ka were used for surveillance. Used for detecting clouds by meteorologists and by police for detecting speeding motorists. Ka : Mapping , short range airport surveillance, Frequency just above K band ( hence a ). V : Very strongly absorbed by the atmosphere. W : Used as a visual sensor for experimental autonomous vehicles, high resolution met observations and imaging. mm : Limited utility of this range because of high attenuation even in clear atmosphere .Of interest for space operation and for short range applications within the atmosphere.

APPLICATIONS OF RADAR
MILITARY
REMOTE SENSING

AIR DEFENCE

WEATHER
PLANETARY OBSERVATIONS SHORT RANGE BELOW GROUND PROBING MAPPING OF SEA ICE AIR ROUTE SURVEYLLENCE RADAR TERMINAL DOPPLER WEATHER RADAR ATC RADAR BEACON SYSTEM
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APPLICATIONS OF RADAR

MILITARY
Radars are used for air defence as surveillanceradars, tracking cum guidance radars and for control of anti-aircraft guns. Used as weapon (mortar) locating radars. For locating and imaging ground objects for targetting. As BFSR(battle field surveillance radar) for detection of ground moving vehicles(such as Tanks) and men. As missile guidance radars

APPLICATIONS OF RADAR

Remote Sensing Applications Earth Resources : - Water resources -Ice cover - Agriculture - Forestry conditions - Geological conditions - Environmental pollution

APPLICATIONS OF RADAR
Space Space vehicles use radars for rendezvous and docking. For landing on the moon Some of the largest ground based radars are used for detection and tracking of satellites. -Satellite-borne radars are also used for remote sensing applications as discussed earlier.

APPLICATIONS OF RADAR

Air Traffic Control:

- Employed for safely controlling air traffic en route and in vicinity of airports. - High resolution radars monitor aircraft and vehicular traffic at large airports - used with GCA (ground control approach) system to guide aircraft to safe landing in bad weather. Aircraft Navigation - weather-avoidance radar used on the aircraft gives out the regions of precipitation to the pilot. - used for terrain avoidance and terrain following. - ground mapping radars of high resolution are also used sometimes for aircraft navigation.

APPLICATIONS OF RADAR

Ship Safety - used for warning of potential collision with other ships. - used for detecting navigation buoys espcially in poor visibility.(max use in terms of no ) - Shore based radars of high resolution used for the surveillance of harbors as an aid to navigation

APPLICATIONS OF RADAR
HIGHWAY SAFETY DOPPLER RADAR FOR SPEED LIMITS. FOR ENFORCEMENT

OF LAW
AIRCRAFT SAFETY & NAVIGATION WEATHER AVOIDANCE RADAR TERRAIN AVOIDANCE / TERRAIN FOLLOWING RADAR RADIO ALTIMETER

SHIP SAFETY

FOR COLLISION AVOIDANCE IN LOW VISIBILITY.

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APPLICATIONS OF RADAR
SPACE FOR LANDING ON MOON

GD BASED RADARS FOR TRACKING

OF SATELLITES OTHERS MEASUREMENT OF SPEED / DISTANCE OIL & GAS EXPLORATIONS, ENTOMOLOGY. Detection of intruders

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TYPES AND USES OF RADAR

SEARCH RADARS SCAN A LARGE AREA WITH PULSES OF SHORT RADIO WAVES
TRACKING RADARS USE THE SAME PRINCIPLE BUT SCAN A SMALLER AREA MORE OFTEN NAVIGATIONAL RADARS ARE LIKE SEARCH RADAR, BUT USE SHORT WAVES THAT REFLECT OFF HARD SURFACES. THEY ARE USED ON COMMERCIAL SHIPS AND LONG-DISTANCE COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT

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TYPES AND USES OF RADAR

MAPPING RADAR SCANS A LARGE REGION FOR REMOTE SENSING AND GEOGRAPHY APPLICATIONS.

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL USES RADAR TO REFLECT ECHOES OF AIRCRAFT. WEATHER RADAR USES RADAR TO REFLECT ECHOES OF CLOUDS.

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TYPES AND USES OF RADAR

WEATHER RADARS USE RADIO WAVES WITH HORIZONTAL, DUAL (HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL), OR CIRCULAR POLARIZATION.

SOME WEATHER RADARS USE THE DOPPLER EFFECT TO MEASURE WIND SPEEDS.

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INCOHERENT SCATTER RADARA RADAR APPLICATION

USED TO STUDY THE EARTH'S IONOSPHERE AND ITS INTERACTIONS WITH THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE, THE MAGNETOSPHERE, AND THE SOLAR WIND.

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INCOHERENT SCATTER ECHO

ELECTRONS IN IONOSPHERE ARE RADAR TARGETS. THESE ELECTRONS CAN SCATTER RADIO WAVES.

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RADAR CAN MEASURE PRESSURE

THE STRENGTH OF THE ECHO RECEIVED FROM THE IONOSPHERE MEASURES THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS ABLE TO SCATTER RADIO WAVES OR WHAT WE CALL ELECTRON PRESSURE.

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RADAR CAN MEASURE TEMPERATURE

SOME ELECTRONS ARE MOVING DUE TO HEAT - IN THIS CASE THE ECHO IS SCATTERED.
THE ECHO WILL CONTAIN A RANGE OF FREQUENCIES CLOSE TO THE TRANSMITTER FREQUENCY.
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RADAR CAN MEASURE TEMPERATURE

AS THE TEMPERATURE INCREASES, THE ELECTRONS MOVE FASTER SO RADAR CAN ACT LIKE A THERMOMETER AND MEASURE THE TEMPERATURE OF THE IONOSPHERE.

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RADAR CAN MEASURE WIND SPEED

WHEN AN ELECTRON IS REMOVED FROM AN ATOM, THE REMAINING CHARGED ATOM IS CALLED AN ION.

THE ION GAS CAN HAVE A DIFFERENT TEMPERATURE FROM THE ELECTRON GAS.

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RADAR CAN MEASURE WIND SPEED

THE ELECTRON/ION MIXTURE IS KNOWN AS A PLASMA AND IS USUALLY IN MOTION (LIKE OUR WIND). SO INCOHERENT SCATTER RADAR CAN ALSO MEASURE WIND SPEED.

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MDU QUESTIONS Section A

May 2012 Q1(a) What are the basic functions of radar ? In indicating the position of target , what is the difference between azimuth and elevation. (b) Explain the various applications of radar ? Dec 2011 Q1(a) Draw radar block diagram and discuss in brief about operation of radar. (b) Discuss in brief about radar frequencies and applications of radar. 87

MDU QUESTIONS Section A

May 2011 Q1(a) Discuss in brief about Radar development and radar frequencies. May 2009 Q1(a) What do you mean by Radar ? Discuss its principle ? Also explain the aspects of block diagram of a basic radar system . Also discuss the various applications of radar system. (b) Explain the radar Development in very brief.
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MDU QUESTIONS Section A

May 2008 Q1(a) What is the principle of Radar and with the help of a neat block diagram , explain parts of radar system . Also list various RADAR applications ? (b) Explain the radar Development in very brief.

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