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Brock Biology of Microorganisms

Twelfth Edition

Madigan / Martinko Dunlap / Clark

Chapter 4
Cell Structure and Function in Bacteria and Archaea
Lectures by Buchan & LeCleir
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I. Cell Shape and Size


4.1 Cell Morphology

4.2 Cell Size and the Significance of Smallness

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4.1 Cell Morphology


Morphology = cell shape

Major cell morphologies


Coccus (pl. cocci): spherical or ovoid Rod: cylindrical shape Spirilla: spiral shape

Many variations on basic morphological types

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Representative Cell Morphologies of Prokaryotes

Figure 4.1

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Representative Cell Morphologies of Prokaryotes

Figure 4.1

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Representative Cell Morphologies of Prokaryotes

Figure 4.1

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4.1 Cell Morphology


Morphology typically does not predict physiology, ecology,

phylogeny, etc. of a prokaryotic cell


May be selective forces involved in setting the morphology Optimization for nutrient uptake (small cells and those with high surface-to-volume ratio) Swimming motility in viscous environments or near surfaces (helical or spiral-shaped cells) Gliding motility (filamentous bacteria)

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4.2 Cell Size and the Significance of Smallness


Size range for prokaryotes: 0.2 m to > 700 m in diameter
Most cultured rod-shaped bacteria are between 0.5 and 4.0
m wide and < 15 m long Few very large prokaryotes; examples include
Epulopiscium fishelsoni Thiomargarita namibiensis

Size range for eukaryotic cells: 10 to > 200 m in diameter

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Some Very Large Prokaryotes

Figure 4.2

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Some Very Large Prokaryotes

Figure 4.2

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4.2 Cell Size and the Significance of Smallness


Surface-to-Volume Ratios, Growth Rates, and

Evolution
There are advantages to being small
Small cells contain more surface area relative to cell volume than large cells (i.e., higher S/V)
support greater nutrient exchange per unit cell

volume
tend to grow faster than larger cells

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Surface Area and Volume Relationships in Cells

Figure 4.3

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4.2 Cell Size and the Significance of Smallness


Lower Limits of Cell Size
Cellular organisms < 0.15 m in diameter are unlikely
Open oceans tend to contain small cells (0.20.4 m in diameter)

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II. The Cytoplasmic Membrane and Transport


4.3 The Cytoplasmic Membrane in Bacteria and Archaea

4.4 The Functions of Cytoplasmic Membranes


4.5 Transport and Transport Systems

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4.3 The Cytoplasmic Membrane in Bacteria and Archaea


Cytoplasmic membrane: thin structure that surrounds the

cell
68 nm thick Vital barrier that separates cytoplasm from environment Highly selective permeable barrier; enables concentration of specific metabolites and excretion of waste products

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4.3 The Cytoplasmic Membrane in Bacteria and Archaea


Composition of Membranes
General structure is phospholipid bilayer
Contain both hydrophobic and hydrophilic components Can exist in many different chemical forms as a result of variation in the groups attached to the glycerol backbone Fatty acids point inward to form hydrophobic environment;

hydrophilic portions remain exposed to external


environment or the cytoplasm

Animation: Membrane Structure


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Structure of a Phospholipid Bilayer

Figure 4.4

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4.3 The Cytoplasmic Membrane in Bacteria and Archaea


Cytoplasmic Membrane
68 nm wide Embedded proteins

Stabilized by hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic


interactions Mg2+ and Ca2+ help stabilize membrane by forming ionic bonds with negative charges on the phospholipids Somewhat fluid

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Structure of the Cytoplasmic Membrane

Figure 4.5

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4.3 The Cytoplasmic Membrane in Bacteria and Archaea


Membrane Proteins
Outer surface of cytoplasmic membrane can interact with a
variety of proteins that bind substrates or process large molecules for transport The inner surface of cytoplasmic membrane interacts with proteins involved in energy-yielding reactions and other

important cellular functions

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4.3 The Cytoplasmic Membrane in Bacteria and Archaea

Membrane Proteins (contd)


Integral membrane proteins
Firmly embedded in the membrane Peripheral membrane proteins One portion anchored in the membrane

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The Major Functions of the Cytoplasmic Membrane

Figure 4.9

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4.4 The Functions of Cytoplasmic Membranes


Permeability Barrier
Polar and charged molecules must be transported
Transport proteins accumulate solutes against the concentration gradient

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Comparative Permeability of Membranes to Molecules

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Transporters versus Diffusion

Figure 4.10

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4.5 Transport and Transport Systems


Three major classes of transport systems in prokaryotes
Simple transport Group translocation ABC system

All require energy in some form, usually proton motive force or ATP

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The Three Classes of Membrane Transport Systems

Figure 4.11

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Structure of Membrane-Spanning Transporters

Figure 4.12

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4.5 Transport and Transport Proteins


ABC (ATP-Binding Cassette) Systems
200 different systems identified in prokaryotes
Often involved in uptake of organic compounds (e.g., sugars, amino acids), inorganic nutrients (e.g., sulfate, phosphate), and trace metals Typically display high substrate specificity

Contain periplasmic binding proteins

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Mechanism of an ABC Transporter

Figure 4.15

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4.5 Transport and Transport Proteins


Protein Export
Translocases: responsible for exporting proteins through and inserting into prokaryotic membranes
Sec translocase system: exports proteins and inserts integral membrane proteins into the membrane; consists of 7

proteins
Type III secretion system: common in pathogenic bacteria; secreted protein translocated directly into host

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III. Cell Walls of Prokaryotes


4.6 The Cell Wall of Bacteria: Peptidoglycan

4.7 The Outer Membrane of Gram-Negative Bacteria


4.8 Cell Walls of Archaea

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4.6 The Cell Wall of Bacteria: Peptidoglycan


Peptidoglycan
Rigid layer that provides strength to cell wall
Polysaccharide composed of
N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid Amino acids Lysine or diaminopimelic acid (DAP)

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Cell Walls of Gram-Positive Bacteria

Figure 4.16a, c, and e

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Cell Walls of Gram-Negative Bacteria

Figure 4.16b, d, and f

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Structure of the Repeating Unit in Peptidoglycan

Figure 4.18

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Peptidoglycan in E. coli and S. aureus

Figure 4.19

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4.6 The Cell Wall of Bacteria: Peptidoglycan


Gram-Positive Cell Walls
Can contain up to 90% peptidoglycan
Common to have teichoic acids (acidic substances) embedded in their cell wall
Lipoteichoic acids: teichoic acids covalently bound to membrane lipids

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Teichoic Acids and Structure of the Gram-Positive Cell Wall

Figure 4.20

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4.6 The Cell Wall of Bacteria: Peptidoglycan

Prokaryotes that Lack Cell Walls


Mycoplasmas
Group of pathogenic bacteria

Thermoplasa
Species of Archaea

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4.7 The Outer Membrane of Gram-Negative Bacteria


Total cell wall contains ~10% peptidoglycan Most of cell wall composed of outer membrane (aka lipopolysaccharide [LPS] layer)
LPS consists of core polysaccharide and Opolysaccharide LPS replaces most of phospholipids in outer half of outer membrane Endotoxin: the toxic component of LPS

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4.7 The Outer Membrane of Gram-Negative Bacteria


Porins: channels for movement of hydrophilic low
molecular-weight substances

Periplasm: space located between cytoplasmic and


outer membranes
~15 nm wide Contents have gel-like consistency Houses many proteins

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The Gram-Negative Cell Wall

Figure 4.23a

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The Gram-Negative Cell Wall: Molecular Model of Porin Proteins

Figure 4.23b

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4.7 The Outer Membrane of Gram-Negative Bacteria


Structural differences between cell walls of gram-positive

and gram-negative Bacteria are responsible for


differences in the Gram stain reaction

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4.8 Cell Walls of Archaea


No peptidoglycan Typically no outer membrane Pseudomurein
Polysaccharide similar to peptidoglycan Composed of N-acetylglucosamine and N-

acetylalosaminuronic acid
Found in cell walls of certain methanogenic Archaea

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IV. Other Cell Surface Structures and Inclusions


4.9 Cell Surface Layers, Pili, and Fimbriae

4.10 Cell Inclusions


4.11 Gas Vesicles

4.12 Endospores

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4.9 Cell Surface Layers, Pili, and Fimbriae


Capsules and Slime Layers
Polysaccharide layers
Assist in attachment to surfaces Aid in evasion of immune system Resist dessication

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Bacterial Capsules

Figure 4.28

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4.9 Cell Surface Layers, Pili, and Fimbriae


Fimbriae
Filamentous protein structures
Enable organisms to stick to surfaces or form pellicles

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Fimbriae

Figure 4.29

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4.9 Cell Surface Layers, Pili, and Fimbriae

Pili
Filamentous protein structures
Typically longer than fimbriae Assist in surface attachment Facilitate genetic exchange between cells (conjugation) Type IV pili involved in twitching motility

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Pili

Figure 4.30

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4.10 Cell Inclusions


Carbon storage polymers
Poly--hydroxybutyric acid (PHB): lipid
Glycogen: glucose polymer

Polyphosphates: accumulations of inorganic phosphate Sulfur globules: composed of elemental sulfur Magnetosomes: magnetic storage inclusions

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Poly--hydroxybutyric acid (PHB)

Figure 4.31

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Sulfur Globules

Figure 4.32

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Magnetotactic Bacteria and Magnetosomes

Figure 4.33

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4.11 Gas Vesicles


Gas Vesicles
Confer buoyancy in planktonic cells
Spindle-shaped gas-filled structures made of protein Gas vesicle membrane impermeable to water Function by decreasing cell density

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Buoyant Cyanobacteria

Figure 4.34

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Gas Vesicles

Figure 4.35

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Gas Vesicles of Cyanobacteria

Figure 4.36

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Gas Vesicles of Cyanobacteria

Figure 4.36

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4.12 Endospores
Endospores
Highly differentiated cells resistant to heat, harsh
chemicals, and radiation Dormant stage of bacterial life cycle Ideal for dispersal via wind, water, or animal gut Only present in gram-positive rods of the genus Bacillus &

Clostridium

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The Bacterial Endospore

Figure 4.38

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Differences between Endospores and Vegetative Cells

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Differences between Endospores and Vegetative Cells

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The Life Cycle of an Endospore-Forming Bacterium

Figure 4.39

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Endospore Germination in Bacillus

Figure 4.40

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4.12 Endospores
Endospore Structure
Structurally complex
Contains dipicolinic acid Enriched in Ca2+ Core contains small-acid soluble proteins (SASP)

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Structure of the Bacterial Endospore

Figure 4.41

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V. Microbial Locomotion
4.13 Flagella and Motility

4.14 Gliding Motility


4.15 Cell Motion as a Behavioral Response: Microbial

Taxes

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4.13 Flagella and Motility


Flagella: structure that assists in swimming
Different arrangements: peritrichous, polar, lophotrichous
Helical in shape Filament composed of flagellin Move by rotation

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The Prokaryotic Flagellum

Animation: The Prokaryotic Flagellum

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Bacterial Flagella

Figure 4.44

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Structure of the Gram-Negative Flagellum

Figure 4.47a

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Flagella Biosynthesis

Figure 4.49

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4.13 Flagella and Motility


Flagella increase or decrease rotational speed in relation

to strength of the proton motive force


Differences in swimming motions
Peritrichously flagellated cells move slowly in a straight line Polarly flagellated cells move more rapidly and typically spin around

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4.14 Gliding Motility


Gliding Motility
Flagella-independent motility Slower and smoother form of movement than swimming Movement typically occurs along long axis of cell Requires surface contact

Mechanisms
Excretion of polysaccharide slime Type IV pili Gliding-specific proteins
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Gliding Bacteria

Figure 4.51a and b

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Gliding Bacteria

Figure 4.51c and d

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4.15 Cell Motion as a Behavioral Response: Microbial Taxes


Taxis: directed movement in response to chemical or physical gradients Chemotaxis: a response to chemicals Phototaxis: a response to light Aerotaxis: a response to oxygen Osmotaxis: a response to ionic strength

Hydrotaxis: a response to water

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Measuring Chemotaxis Using a Capillary Tube Assay

Figure 4.54

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Measuring Chemotaxis Using a Capillary Tube Assay

Figure 4.54

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