Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Psychology
Psychology: the study of behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organisms physical state, mental state, and environment.
Is This Psychology?
Is This Psychology?
Is This Psychology?
Psychologys Present
Biological Perspective emphasizes the role of biology (physiology, genetics) on behavior and mental processes
How damage to different parts of the brain affects personality, behavior, learning ability, language How genetics predispose us to develop certain personality traits, mental illness
Learning Perspective emphasizes the role of the environment and our experiences on behavior and mental processes
How children adopt certain behaviors by imitating their parents (social-learning) or by parents directly rewarding those behaviors (behavioral)
Cognitive Perspective emphasizes the role of cognitive processes on behavior and mental processes
If we believe we will fail, we may not even try It is easier for us to remember/recall information that is consistent with our beliefs than information that is inconsistent with our beliefs
Psychodynamic Perspective: emphasizes the role of unconscious conflicts on behavior and mental processes Humanistic: emphasizes free will, personal growth, and resilience
Psychologists
Clinical Counseling School
Critical Thinking
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Ask Questions be curious Define Your Terms frame your question in concrete, measurable terms (operationalize) Examine the Evidence ask what evidence supports and refutes your hypothesis, conduct research or read about others who have tested your hypothesis, take into account the quality of the research Analyze Assumptions and Biases what assumptions might you be making or what biases do you have that narrows your view: acknowledge these and force yourself to expand your view Avoid Emotional Reasoning try to take your emotions out of your thinking (i.e., if you feel passionately that your view is correct it may cloud your judgment) Dont Oversimplify dont generalize from a single (or a few) cases or events Consider Other Interpretations force yourself to consider and test other explanations/hypotheses that are contrary to your own, but would also explain your observations Tolerate Uncertainty avoid drawing firm conclusions unless others have replicated your findings
Research
Scientific Method
Careful Observation
Define variables in operational terms Variable: anything that varies (weight, temperature, ratings on a stress survey)
Measurement
Variables have to be measured so that statistical tests can be used
Hypothesis Formation
Hypotheses are stated in such a way that they can be disproven (principal of falsifiability)
Experimentation Evaluation
Correlation Scatterplots
Experimental Research
In experimental research, you manipulate one or more (independent) variables and observe the effect of this manipulation on one or more other (dependent) variables, while controlling for the influence of other (extraneous) variables. In this way, you can conclude that it was the effect of your independent variable that CAUSED the observed change in your dependent variable.
Experimental Research
Independent and dependent variables Experimental and control conditions
Random assignment Placebo conditions (single-blind) Control for experimenter effects (double-blind)
Quasi-Experimental Research
Personality
Culture
Learning Experiences
Personality
Personality: the distinctive pattern of behavior, mannerisms, thoughts, and emotions that characterizes an individual over time Someones personality is comprised of various traits Traits: habitual ways of behaving, thinking, and feeling (e.g., confident, pessimistic)
Psychodynamic Theories
Emphasis on unconscious intrapsychic dynamics Belief in the importance of early childhood Belief that development occurs in fixed stages Focus on fantasies and symbolic meanings of events Reliance on subjective rather than objective methods of assessment
Defense Mechanisms
Repression: Threatening idea is blocked from consciousness Projection: Unacceptable feelings are attributed to someone else Displacement: Directing emotions toward objects or people that arent the real target Reaction Formation: A feeling that produces anxiety is transformed into its opposite. Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable feelings or impulses in a socially acceptable way. Regression: A person reverts to a previous phase of psychological development. Denial: A person refuses to admit that something is unpleasant.
Humanistic View
Abraham Maslow: personality gradually develops towards self-actualization Carl Rogers: our inner experience of ourselves may differ from what we show others Rollo May (existentialist): in confronting issues such as death and searching for the meaning of life, we may discover inner resources of strength or be overcome by fear/anxiety, which is reflected in our personality as it evolves over our lifetime
Trait Theory
Extroversion vs. Introversion (53%) Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability (41%) Agreeableness vs. Antagonism (41%) Conscientiousness vs. Impulsiveness (44%) Openness to experience vs. resistance to new experience (61%)
Social Learning
Unlike behaviorism, social learning allows for observational learning Social learning also involves the notion of reciprocal determinism
Culture
Learning Experiences
Developmental Psychology
Human Development
Developmental psychology focuses on: physiological and cognitive changes across the life span socialization (the process by which children learn the attitudes and behaviors expected of them by society)
Infant Development
Reflexes
Rooting Sucking Swallowing Moro startle Babinski Grasp Stepping
Infant Development
Attachment (Harlow research)
Contact comfort
Language
Language Development
Baby Talk: 6-12 mos. Object Naming: 1 yr. Telegraphic Speech: 18-24 mos. Rapid Acquisition of Words: 1-6 yrs.
Language Acquisition Device: an innate mental module that allows young children to develop language if they are exposed to an adequate sampling of conversation during a critical period in their development.
Accommodation: Modifying existing cognitive structures in response to experience and new information.
Bat
Adolescence
Developmental Influences
Physiological changes
Puberty & Timing of Puberty Brain Development
Adulthood
Physiological Psychology
Communication in the NS
Neurons
Glia
Electro-Chemical Communication
If action potential in the cell body is reached, electrical impulse is sent down axon When signal reaches axon terminal, vesicles release neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft NTs bind to receptor site on receiving neuron Electrical state of receiving neuron changes, becoming more (or less) likely to fire, depending on whether the NT is excitatory or inhibitory
Major Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh) Dopamine Norepinephrine Serotonin Gamma amino butryic acid (GABA) Glutamate
Important Hormones
Endorphins: Chemical substances in the nervous system that are similar in structure and action to opiates; they are involved in pain reduction, pleasure, and memory, and are known technically as endogenous opioid peptides.
Important Hormones
Melatonin > Sleep Adrenal Hormones
Cortisol > Boosts energy, reduces inflammation Adrenaline (Epinephrine) & Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine) > Increase arousal and improve memory
Sex Hormones
Androgens (e.g., testosterone) > Masculinizing Estrogens > Feminizing
Consciousness
Consciousness
Consciousness awareness of oneself and ones environment Changes in consciousness
sleeping & dreaming daydreaming & mindlessness hypnosis & relaxation drug-induced
Biological Rhythms
Regular physiological fluctuations Circadian rhythms: biological rhythms occurring approximately every 24 hours
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) Melatonin Internal desynchronization
Stage 2: heart rate slows, body temp drops, muscles tighten and relax Stage 3 & 4: slow (delta) wave sleep
Person is deeply asleep and will be groggy if awoken Associated with restoring energy, muscle/bone growth and repair, and strengthening of the immune system
Function is unknown
REM rebound
Over the course of a period of sleep, REM sleep time increases and slow wave sleep decreases
Sleep Disorders
Dyssomnias: associated with sleep deprivation or problematic sleep onset
Insomnia Sleep apnea Narcolepsy
Sleep Disorders
Parasomnias: behavioral or physiological abnormalities during sleep
Sleepwalking Disorder (Stage 4) Night terror Disorder (Stage 4) Nightmare Disorder (REM) REM Behavior Disorder (REM)
Why Do We Dream?
Psychoanalytic View Problem-Focused Approach Reverse Learning (Mental Housekeeping) Activation-Synthesis Theory Cognitive View
Hypnosis
Theories of Hypnosis
Dissociation Theories
A split in consciousness in which one part of the mind operates independently from the rest of the consciousness. One part of the mind responds to the suggestions while the other functions as a hidden observer, watching but not participating
Socio-Cognitive Theories
Effect results from an interaction between the social influence of the hypnotist and the abilities, beliefs, and expectations of the subject. The person is basically playing a role in response of the social demands of the hypnotist.
Psychoactive Drugs
Substances that alter perception, mood, thinking, memory, or behavior by changing the bodys biochemistry (typically by acting on neurotransmitters) Use of psychoactive substances has occurred throughout time and across species Drugs are classified according to their effects on the CNS and how they impact behavior and mood
Drug Classifications
Stimulants (e.g., cocaine, amphetamine, nicotine, caffeine): speed up CNS activity Depressants (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines): slow down CNS activity Opiates (e.g., opium, heroin, morphine): mimic endogenous opioids Psychedelics (e.g., LSD, mescaline, psilocybin): disrupt normal thought processes Other drugs (e.g., marijuana, Ecstasy): affect the CNS in a variety of ways
"Colour is the keyboard, the eyes are the harmonies, the soul is the piano with many strings. The artist is the hand that plays, touching one key or another, to cause vibrations in the soul."-W. Kandinsky
Difference Threshold
The smallest difference in stimulation that can be reliably detected by an observer when two stimuli are compared; also called Just Noticeable Difference (JND).
Signal-Detection Theory
Holds that responses in a detection task depend on a sensory process and a decision process. Responses may vary with a persons motivation, alertness, and expectations
Absolute Thresholds
Vision
A single candle flame from 30 miles on a clear night
Hearing
The tick of a watch from 20 feet in total quiet
Smell
One drop of perfume in a 6-room apartment
Touch
The wing of a bee on the cheek, dropped from 1 cm
Taste
One teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water
Sensory Adaptation
The reduction or disappearance of sensory responsiveness that occurs when stimulation is unchanging or repetitious.
Vision
What We See
Hue: The dimension of visual experience specified by color names and related to the wavelength of light.
Brightness: Lightness and luminance; the dimension of visual experience related to the amount of light emitted from or reflected by an object. Saturation: Vividness or purity of color; the dimension of visual experience related to the complexity of light waves.
Trichromatic Theory
T. Young (1802) & H. von Helmholtz (1852) both proposed that the eye detects 3 primary colors (red, blue, & green) All other colors can be derived by combining the activity of these three types of cones
Opponent-Process Theory
At the level of the ganglion cells in the retina and in visual centers of the brain, opponent process cells selectively fire to either short or long wavelengths (and are inhibited by the opposing wavelength). This inhibition is temporarily reversed with a brief firing when the color is removed (explaining negative afterimages)
Visual Perception
Proximity
Closure
Similarity
Continuity
Figure-Ground
Monocular Cues: Visual cues to depth or distance that can be used by one eye alone.
Hearing
What We Hear
Loudness: The dimension of auditory experience related to the intensity of a pressure wave. Pitch: The dimension of auditory experience related to the frequency of a pressure wave. Timbre: The distinguishing quality of sound; the dimension of auditory experience related to the complexity of the pressure wave.
How we Hear
Auditory Perception
Gestalt Principles Apply Distance Perception Location Perception
Other Senses
Taste
Papillae: Knoblike elevations on the tongue, containing the taste buds (Singular: papilla). Taste buds: Nests of taste-receptor cells.
Internal Senses
Kinesthesis: The sense of body position and movement of body parts; also called kinesthesia. Equilibrium: The sense of balance.
Cognitive Schema: An integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world.
Prototype
Prototype: Furniture
1 chair 1 sofa 3 couch 3 table 5 easy chair 6 dresser 6 rocking chair 8 coffee table 9 rocker 10 love seat 11 chest of drawers 12 desk 13 bed ... 22 bookcase 27 cabinet 29 bench 31 lamp 32 stool 35 piano 41 mirror 42 tv 44 shelf 45 rug 46 pillow 47 wastebasket 49 sewing machine 50 stove 54 refrigerator 60 telephone
Example
SCHEMA BREAKFAST
MENTAL IMAGE
PROPOSITIONS I usually eat cereal for breakfast. On Sundays, I like to make pancakes, waffles, or eggs and biscuits. Other people eat donuts, bagels, or leftovers for breakfast.
OTHER PROPOSITIONS Is derived from the notion of breaking fast. Means first meal of the day. Is the most important meal of the day.
OTHER PROPOSITIONS I usually make breakfast for myself and my kids. Breakfast is not my favorite meal.
Cognitive Schemas
Framework that helps us organize and interpret information Help us take shortcuts Also cause us to overlook relevant information
Reasoning Rationally
Formal Reasoning: Algorithms and Logic Informal Reasoning: Heuristics and Dialectical Thinking (Reflective Judgment)
Formal Logic
Algorithm Deductive Reasoning: A tool of formal logic in which a conclusion necessarily follows from a set of observations or propositions (premises).
Formal Logic
Inductive Reasoning: A tool of formal logic in which a conclusion probably follows from a set of observations or propositions or premises, but could be false.
Informal Reasoning
Heuristic:
A rule of thumb that suggests a course of action or guides problem solving but does not guarantee an optimal solution.
Dialectical Reasoning:
A process in which opposing facts or ideas are weighed and compared, with a view to determining the best solution or resolving differences.
Reflective Judgment
Pre-reflective Judgment
I was brought up to believe. I know what Ive seen.
Quasi-reflective Judgment
Knowledge is purely subjective. You have your opinion and I have mine.
Reflective Judgment
Based on the evidence, I believe Here are the reasons for my conclusions
chapter 7
Cognitive Dissonance
Intelligence
Psychometric Approach
g factor Binet-Simon Intelligence Test
Mental age/chronological age x 100 = IQ
Stanford-Binet
Standardized scores
Predictors of Intelligence
Genes Environment
Prenatal care Nutrition Exposure to toxins Stress Environmental enrichment
Memory
The War of the Ghosts. One night two young men from Egulac went down to the river to hunt seals, and while they were it became foggy and calm. Then they heard war cries and they thought; 'Maybe this is a war-party.' They escaped to the shore, and hid behind a log. Now canoes came up, and they heard the noise of paddles and saw one canoe coming up to them. There were five men in the canoe and they said; 'What do you think? We wish to take you along. We are going up the river to make war on the people. One of the young men said; 'I have no arrows. 'Arrows are in the canoe,' they said. 'I will not go along. I might be killed. My relatives do not know where I have gone. But you,' he said, turning to the other, 'May go with them. So one of the young men went, but the other returned home. And the warriors went on up the river to a town on the other side of Kalama. The people came down to the water and began to fight, and many were killed. But presently, one of the young men heard one of the warriors say; 'Quick let us go home. That Indian has been hit. Now he thought; 'Oh, they are ghosts.' He did not feel sick, but he had been shot. So the canoes went back to Egulac, and the young man went back to his house and made a fire. And he told everybody and said; 'Behold, I accompanied the ghosts, and we went to fight. Many of our fellows were killed and many of those that attacked us were killed. They said I was hit, but I did not feel sick. He told it all, and then he became quiet. When the sun rose, he fell down. Something black came out of his mouth. His face became contorted. The people jumped up and cried. He was dead.
Two Indians were out fishing for seals in the Bay of Manapan, when along came five other Indians in a war canoe. They were going fighting. Come with us said the five to the two. I cannot come was the answer of the one, for I have an old mother at home who is dependent on me. The other said he could not come because he had no arms. That is no difficulty the others replied, for we have plenty in the canoe with us; so he got into the canoe and went with them. In a fight soon afterwards this Indian received a mortal wound. Finding that his hour was coming, he cried out that he was about to die. Nonsense said one of the others you will not die. But he did.
Flashbulb Memories
Even flashbulb memories, emotionally powerful memories that seem particularly vivid, are often embellished or distorted and tend to become less accurate over time.
Eyewitness Recall
The reconstructive nature of memory makes memory vulnerable to suggestion. Eyewitness testimony is especially vulnerable to error when:
the suspects ethnicity differs from that of the witness; when leading questions are put to witnesses; when the witnesses are given misleading information.
Childrens Testimony
Measuring Memory
Explicit Memory: Conscious, intentional recollection of an event or of an item of information. Implicit Memory: Unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered information on current thoughts or actions.
Serial-Position Effect
The tendency for recall of first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle of the list.
Long-term Memory
Procedural memories:
Memories for performance of actions or skills. Knowing how
Declarative memories:
Memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events; includes semantic and episodic memory. Knowing that
Semantic memories:
General knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts, and propositions.
Episodic memories:
Personally experienced events and the contexts in which they occurred.
Connectionist Model
How We Remember
Effective Encoding Rehearsal Mnemonics
Encoding
In order to remember material well, we must encode it accurately in the first place. Some kinds of information, such as material in a college course, require effortful, as opposed to automatic, encoding.
Rehearsal
Maintenance Rehearsal: Rote repetition of material in order to maintain its availability in memory. Elaborative Rehearsal: Association of new information with already stored knowledge and analysis of the new information to make it memorable.
Mnemonics
Mnemonics: memory aids or tricks (are usually verbal, but can take other forms too) Enhance retention by promoting elaborative encoding and making material meaningful. However, for ordinary memory tasks, complex memory tricks are often ineffective or even counterproductive.
Why We Forget
Decay Interference Cue-dependent Forgetting Psychogenic Amnesia
Decay
Decay Theory: The theory that information in memory eventually disappears if it is not accessed; it applies more to short-term than to long-term memory.
Interference
Retroactive Interference: Forgetting that occurs when recently learned material interferes with the ability to remember similar material stored previously. Proactive Interference: Forgetting that occurs when previously stored material interferes with the ability to remember similar, more recently learned material.
Cue-dependent Forgetting
Cue-Dependent Forgetting: The inability to retrieve information stored in memory because of insufficient cues for recall. State-Dependent Memory: The tendency to remember something when the rememberer is in the same physical or mental state as during the original learning or experience.
Learning
Learning
Learning: A relatively durable change in behavior due to experience. Behaviorism: An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior.
Classical Conditioning
Pavlovs Apparatus
Classical Conditioning: The process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response.
Conditioning Terms
Unconditioned Stimulus:
A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning.
Conditioned Stimulus:
An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioning Terms
Unconditioned Response:
A reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning.
Conditioned Response:
A response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; it occurs after the conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
Examples
John has always disciplined his cat Smokey by hitting a newspaper near her to make a loud noise. Now, Smokey has begun to run and hide when John opens the morning paper. At age 12, Ben began masturbating while wearing his mothers silk slip. Eventually, he found himself becoming aroused whenever he saw womens undergarments or clothes made of similar material.
Acquisition
A neutral stimulus that is consistently followed by an unconditioned stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus.
Extinction
The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; in classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
A procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus Discrimination:
The tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli.
Learning to Fear
An 11-month old boy named Albert was conditioned to fear a white laboratory rat
Each time he reached for the rat, Watson made a loud clanging noise right behind Albert
Counterconditioning
In classical conditioning, the process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with an unwanted conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning
Definitions
Operant behavior is behavior that is modifiable by its consequences Operant conditioning is the process by which operant behavior is acquired or eliminated Operant behavior concerns complex, nonreflexive behavior
So.
A = Talking to someone you are attracted to at a party B = You use a clever pick-up line C = You get a date
.You are more likely to use that line again in the same (or similar) situations
However.
A = Talking to someone you are attracted to at a party B = You use a clever pick-up line C = You get slapped
.You are less likely to use that line again in the same (or similar) situations
Reinforcement
Increase in Behavior Stimulus Presented Increase in Behavior Stimulus Removed
Punishment
Decrease in Behavior Stimulus Presented Decrease in Behavior Stimulus Removed
Positive
Negative
Shaping
Reinforcing successive approximations to a target behavior
Complex behaviors Behaviors not already in the persons behavioral repertoire
Extinction
The discontinuation of reinforcement results in a decrease and eventual elimination of the response Side effects of extinction:
Extinction burst Increased variability of behavior Aggression Spontaneous recovery
Schedules of Reinforcement
Rules that determine which responses will be reinforced and which wont be reinforced Ratio Schedules: Reinforcement determined by the number of responses emitted
Fixed Ratio (FR): The number of responses per reinforcement is fixed. For example, every 10th response produces a reinforcer (FR 10) Variable Ratio (VR): The number of responses per reinforcement varies. For example, on average every 10th response (range: 5-15) produces a reinforcer (VR 10).
Schedules of Reinforcement
Interval Schedules: Reinforcement is determined by the amount of time since the last reinforcer.
Fixed Interval (FI): The time between reinforcers is fixed. For example, the first response after a one minute time period has elapsed is reinforced (FI 1) Variable Interval (VI): The time between reinforcers varies. For example, the first response after an average interval of one minute (range: 30s-90s) is reinforced (VI 1).
Social-Cognitive Theory
Latent Learning
Rats: one maze trial/day One group found food every time (green line) Second group never found food (blue line) Third group found food on Day 11 (red line)
Sudden change, day 12
Social-Cognitive Concepts
Social-learning theory
Observational learning
Results are controversial and have generated much research on violence and obedience.
Attributions
Attribution Theory:
The theory that people are motivated to explain their own and other peoples behavior by attributing causes of that behavior to a situation or a disposition.
Self-serving Bias: The tendency to use dispositional attributions to explain our successes and situational attributions to explain our failures
Attitudes
Attitude:
A relatively stable opinion containing beliefs and emotional feelings about a topic.
Familiarity Effect:
The tendency of people to feel more positive toward something because theyve seen it often
Validity Effect:
The tendency of people to believe that a statement is true or valid simply because it has been repeated many times.
Influencing Attitudes
Product Placement
Individuals in Groups
Conformity
Research study by Ashe: Subjects in a group were asked to match line lengths. Confederates in the group picked the wrong line. Subjects went along with the wrong answer on 37% of trials.
Groupthink
In close-knit groups, the tendency for all members to think alike and suppress disagreement for the sake of harmony. Historical examples
Bay of Pigs Challenger & Columbia space shuttle tragedies War in Iraq?
Social loafing
Deindividuation:
In groups or crowds, the loss of awareness of ones own individuality.
Group Identity
Social Identity:
The part of a persons self-concept that is based on identification with a nation, culture, or group or with gender or other roles in society.
Ethnic Identity:
A persons identification with a racial, religious, or ethnic group.
Ethnocentrism:
The belief that ones own ethnic group, nation, or religion is superior to all others.
Stereotypes
Stereotype:
A cognitive schema or a summary impression of a group, in which a person believes that all members of the group share a common trait or traits (positive, negative, or neutral).
Prejudice:
A negative stereotype about a group, combined with a strong dislike or hatred for members of that group.
Competitions fostered hostility between the groups. Experimenters contrived situations requiring cooperation for success. Cross-group friendships increased.
Psychological Disorders
Assessment
Reliability Validity
Test Results
Objective tests Projective tests
Rorschach Inkblot:
Clinical Interview
Observations
Professional Knowledge
Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety Disorders
Generalized Anxiety Disorder:
A continuous state of anxiety marked by feelings of worry and dread, apprehension, difficulties in concentration, and signs of motor tension.
Panic Disorder:
An anxiety disorder in which a person experiences recurring panic attacks (feelings of impending doom or death, accompanied by physiological symptoms such as rapid breathing and dizziness). Agoraphobia: fear of the marketplace, can result from (and exacerbate) panic disorder.
Anxiety Disorders
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):
An anxiety disorder in which a person who has experienced a traumatic or life-threatening event has symptoms such as re-experiencing the trauma, increased physiological arousal, and emotional numbing.
Specific Phobia
An irrational fear of a particular object, activity, or situation that provokes an immediate anxiety response, results in avoidance behavior, and causes significant disruption in functioning.
Anxiety Disorders
Social Phobia:
Characterized by an irrational and intense fear that ones behavior in a public situation will be mocked or criticized by others, along with avoidance of feared social situations Common triggers: public speaking, eating in public, performing in public, informal social situations
Anxiety Disorders
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD):
Obsessions: persistent and intrusive ideas, thoughts, impulses, or images. Compulsions: repetitive and seemingly purposeful behavior performed in response to uncontrollable urges or according to a ritualistic or stereotyped set of rules.
Examples
Obsession: Student has urge to shout obscenities in a quiet classroom. Compulsion: She feels compelled to screw and unscrew the cap of a ballpoint pen five times each time she thinks of an obscene word. Obsession: A man believes he might inadvertently contaminate food as he cooks dinner for his family. Compulsion: On a daily basis, he sterilizes all cooking utensils, scours every pot and pan, and wears rubber gloves when handling any food.
Learning perspective
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Social learning
Cognitive perspective
Catastrophic thinking Mind reading (social phobia) Perfectionistic thinking (OCD)
Mood Disorders
Theories of Depression
Biological explanations emphasize genetics and brain chemistry. Social explanations emphasize the stressful circumstances of peoples lives. Attachment/interpersonal explanations emphasize problems with close relationships. Cognitive explanations emphasize particular habits of thinking and ways of interpreting events. Vulnerability-Stress explanations draw on all four explanations described above.
Mania
Persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood
Inflated self-esteem (grandiosity) Decreased need for sleep Talkativeness Racing thoughts Distractibility Increased activity or psychomotor agitation Behavioral impulsivity
Bipolar Disorder
Bipolar Disorder:
A mood disorder in which episodes of depression and mania (excessive euphoria) occur. Bipolar subtypes (I and II)
Mood
Schizophrenia
Theories of Schizophrenia
Genetic predispositions Neurotransmitter abnormalities Structural brain abnormalities
Structural Abnormalities in Sz
MRI scans show that a person with Schizophrenia (left) is more likely than a healthy person (right) to have enlarged ventricles.
Case Examples
1. Barry has been feeling overwhelmed with feelings of sadness and hopelessness for the past couple of months. He cannot think of any reason for feeling this way, which also leaves him feeling frustrated and more despondent. He has little appetite and has been having problems sleeping and concentrating. He has stopped hanging out with his friends and spends much of his time alone in his apartment. Although he is against suicide for religious reasons, Barry is even beginning to understand why someone might make that choice, as he is finding it increasingly hard to get through each day. 2. Six months ago, Candace was sitting at her desk at work when, all of a sudden, she started feeling really strange. Her ears seemed to be stuffed with cotton and her vision was very dim. She was cold, had broken out in a sweat, and felt extremely afraid for no good reason. Her heart was racing and she immediately became convinced that she was dying. Candace went for almost a month before she experienced another similar episode. Then, they began occurring more frequently, particularly when she traveled or found herself in an unfamiliar place. In the past few months, she has started to avoid places in which she fears she may have an episode and wont be able to escape or get help. She rarely leaves her house except to go to work and may end up losing her job due to her unwillingness to travel on business. She has consulted her family physician and a cardiologist, but neither has found a medical cause for her episodes.
Case Examples
3. Matthews family has been getting concerned about his odd behavior. He has stopped going to his classes, often is found mumbling to himself or avoiding others altogether, and has expressed fear that his landlord and his neighbor are out to get him. He has started wearing many layers of clothes, despite the warm weather. When asked about this, he vaguely explained that they told me I need to be prepared. 4. Mary was always coming up with grand plans for making money, pouring her time and vast amounts of energy into each idea (often spending 18-20 hour days on the project of the moment, with little time for sleep), none of which lasted very long before she abandoned them. The latest scheme is to buy a huge tract of land and build an expensive dude ranch where people can come to learn how to train their horses, eat at a four-star restaurant, and stay in luxury accommodations all this in spite of the fact that Mary doesnt have the money to buy the land, knowledge of how to run a hotel, or have a four-star chef handy. Indeed, she has already filed for bankruptcy and has alienated her family due to outstanding debts, in relation to previous, similar grand ideas. 5. Joes relatives are concerned that he worries too much. He worries about little things going wrong, he worries about big things going wrong, and sometimes it seems he worries because theres nothing to worry about. He worries until his neck is stiff and has a hard time winding down to go to sleep at night.
Psychotherapy
Psychodynamic Therapy
Origins in Freuds psychodynamic theory of personality Assumptions
Our behavior is influenced by unconscious motives, drives, and conflicts Our ego employs defense mechanisms to help us cope with these unconscious conflicts Early childhood experiences are central to our personality development and later adult functioning
Treatment
Techniques used to examine unconscious material (free association, dream analysis, examination of slips of the tongue) Psychoanalysis vs. time-limited psychodynamic therapy
Treatment goal
Increased insight into unconscious dynamics
Behavioral Therapy
Origins in principles of learning Assumptions
Problematic behaviors and symptoms have developed as a result of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or social learning
Treatment
Classical conditioning interventions: systematic desensitization (counter-conditioning and graduated exposure), aversion therapy Operant conditioning interventions: self-management, token economy Social learning interventions: skills training
Fear Hierarchy
Cognitive Therapy
Grew out of socio-cognitive theory Assumptions
Our cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, appraisals) play an important role in determining how the environment impacts us Maladaptive schemas can lead to cognitive distortions, which affect emotions and behaviors
Treatment
Thought monitoring Cognitive restructuring Often combined with Behavior Therapy interventions (CBT)
Humanistic Therapy
Originated as alternative view to psychodynamic and CBT models (positive psychology) Assumptions
People (clients) are experts on their own experiences People are intrinsically motivated towards growth Increased self-awareness and self-acceptance can promote growth Self-discovery and self-acceptance can be facilitated via the client-therapist relationship
Therapy
Person-Centered (Carl Rogers): Emphasis on therapeutic relationship Gestalt/Experiential (Fritz Perls): Emphasis on increasing awareness in the here-and-now Existential (Victor Frankl): Emphasis on helping the client explore the ultimate concerns of life (e.g., death, isolation, meaninglessness)
Therapy
Therapy sessions usually involve multiple family members Many different types of family systems therapy exist, but focus is generally on improving communications among family members and realigning relationships (e.g., getting parents to work together as a team)
Psychotherapy Overview
Review of 475 psychotherapy outcome studies showed 70-80% improvement for those receiving therapy (M. Smith et al., 1980) Cognitive-behavioral treatment has the most empirical support However, treatment comparison research has not found overwhelming support for the efficacy of one therapy approach over others (except for specific disorders) Common factors seem to account for much of the treatment gains in therapy (being listened to by a supportive helping professional, being provided with feedback, being seen in a professional setting, paying for services) Most therapists in the US identify themselves as integrative/eclectic or cognitive-behavioral