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Stream Ecosystems
Fluids
Substances with no strength Deform when forces are applied Include water and gases Body Forces act on whole or bulk of fluid
Resolve forces within plane of surface of body so forces distributed in plane
Constitutive Relations
Flow Resistance (Manning Equation) Sediment Transport (Shields, Hjulstrom, Bagnold)
du dy
= velocity gradient
Viscosity
Measure of internal friction of fluid particles
Molecular cohesiveness Resistance fluid has to shear (or flow)
= velocity gradient
du / dy
= Shear Stress
du dy
Kinematic Viscosity
v
= viscosity = density
Viscosity constant at given T; doesnt depend on type of shearing stress or duration of stress Newtonian Fluid T Kinematic viscosity determines extent to which fluid flow exhibits turbulence
Turbulence = irregular and random component of fluid motion Eddies = highly turbulent water masses
du dy
Laminar Flow
du ( ) dy
Turbulent Flow
Add apparent viscosity or eddy viscosity () to turbulent flow shear stress equation Turbulence exerts larger shear stress on adjacent fluids than laminar
Reynolds Number
Re = UR/
U = mean flow velocity R = hydraulic radius (A/P) = kinematic viscosity (/)
= UR/
= density = viscosity
Balance between inertial forces (cause turbulence) and viscous forces (suppress turbulence) Laminar: Re < 1000 viscous dominate; shallow depth or low velocity Turbulent: Re >1000 inertial forces dominate; deep or fast flow
Rough/Irregular beds
Coarse sand or gravel Viscous sublayer destroyed by particles extending through layer Obstacles generate eddies at boundary of flow
0 Rh S
= hydraulic radius Rh S
Depth-Slope Product
Newtons 2nd Law of Momentum Calculate boundary shear stress of flow moving down channel Adds g for gravitational acceleration to account for weight of water moving along channel length
Shear Velocity
U* = o/
U* = Shear Velocity o = Boundary Shear Stress
= Fluid Density
Shear stress at bed function of shear velocity (cm/s) In rivers:
U* = gDS D= depth S= slope Assumes steady, uniform flow Average shear velocity of section of channel Warning: D can be a problem better to use R This is still based on flow in pipes
Froude Number
Ratio between inertial and gravity forces Gravity influences way fluid transmits shallow water waves Dimensionless value (like Re)
Froude Number
Fr < 1 Fr > 1 Tranquil, Streaming, Subcritical Rapid, Shooting, Supercritical
Velocity of wave > flow velocity
Waves cannot propagate upstream
Chezy Equation
U = CR/S Velocity directly proportional to square root of RS product where R = A/P; S= Slope Chezy coefficient (C) is a constant of proportionality related to resisting factors in system Equation balances flow velocity with resisting forces associated with bed roughness
Manning Equation
Similar to Chezy Equation Mannings n is presumed to be constant for a given channel framework Mannings n is also called Manning roughness coefficient Need estimate of n for each stream reach Can be controlled by sediment grain size or bedforms controlled by Froude number
Mannings n
Can look up n in tables Can calculate n Can look up values in a photo guide from USGS (Barnes, 1968)
Mannings n Examples
Mannings n Examples