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Robustness Methodology
Module
Black Belt Training
Module #4
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Introduction
The robustness initiative was instituted to:
Improve the quality of our products and
processes.
Lower our cost to design and manufacture.
Reduce our overall development time so we
can get new product to market faster.
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1. Quality and Cost
Objectives:
Define the relationship between
quality and cost
Recognize the value of meeting
target vs. specification
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Step Loss Function Examined
It is a fallacy that:
A quality product is one that meets
specifications
Any product that is within specifications is
good; any product outside specifications is
bad
Any value within the specification limits is
as good as any other
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Only when we have to scrap
or rework a product.
Only if a product that is
outside of specification gets
to the customer. (In that case,
we would experience some
warranty cost.)

QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS
LOWER SPEC UPPER SPEC
SCRAP &
REWORK
SCRAP &
REWORK
LOSS IN
DOLLARS
Max
Min
Let's examine this from a customer viewpoint.
Another fallacy is
that we experience a dollar loss:
Loss Function
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what is the difference between the product that is just
outside the specification limit and the one that is just
inside the limit?





... really, a minute difference.
TARGET LOWER
LIMIT
UPPER
LIMIT VALUE
A B
From the customer viewpoint,
Loss Function
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that any product that is within specification is as
good as any other, we might produce equal
amounts of product at every quality level.






If there were no dollar cost until we were out of
specification, this might be a valid assumption.
TARGET LOWER
LIMIT
UPPER
LIMIT VALUE
PRODUCT DISTRIBUTION
If we assume
Loss Function
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Quality Loss Function
Whenever we vary from
the target value, we
experience both quality
loss and, hence, financial
loss.
The quality loss cost (loss
in dollars) increases
quadratically as we move
from the target value.
LOSS IN
DOLLARS
Min
Max
Target
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If we were producing this distribution,
we would be experiencing some loss.
TARGET LOWER
LIMIT
UPPER
LIMIT VALUE
Loss Function
Quality Loss Function
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If we were producing this distribution, that has less
variance from target, the loss cost would be lower.
TARGET LOWER
LIMIT
UPPER
LIMIT VALUE
Loss Function
Quality Loss Function
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Robustness
methodologies will help
us achieve customer
targets and reduce
variance from the target.
Robustness Defined
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2. Robustness Defined
Objectives:
Define robustness
Discover robust and non-robust products
Recognize the parameters that affect the quality
characteristics of a product or process
Recognize where the robustness methodology is
best used


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The Robustness Definition
"Robustness is a state of insensitivity ...
...of the functional performance of a product or process ...
...to variations in raw material, manufacturing processes
and operating environment...
...over its intended useful life...
...at a cost that represents value."
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The Robustness Definition
Robustness means:
The product or process performs its intended function
well within user profiles.
Regard is given to:
The environment
Differences in materials
Differences in users or operators
Aging of the product or process, and ...

The product or process accomplishes this without major
cost impact.
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For Example...
As consumers, we expect our automobiles to start
every time, on the first turn of the key, regardless
of:
Whether it's cold, hot, or humid
Altitude
Age of the car
Hot or cold start, etc.
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The Parameter
(P) Diagram
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A number of parameters (factors) can influence the response of
the product or process.








NOTE: Parameter and factor are interchangeable terms.
P Diagram
Noise Factors
Control Factors
Signal Factors Response
Product or
Process
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Signal Factors
Factors that are set by the user or operator of the
product or process to achieve the intended target
value for the response.
Noise Factors
Control Factors
Signal Factors
Response
Product or
Process
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You saw that customer requirements determine the response that is desired
of the product or process.




Fixed (Static) Same outcome every time the product or process
is used
Variable (Dynamic) Outcome is controlled by the operator or owner

Identifying the quality characteristic (response) that you want to make
robust to a certain condition is the starting point in robustness
methodology.
Product or
Process
Response


Signal / Response
Signal
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Types of Signals
Static
Response is designed to remain
constant. (no need for user input,
just on or off)

EXAMPLES
light intensity for ordinary light
bulbs (no dimmer switch)
diameter of a machined part
Dynamic
Response is designed to vary
based on user input. (Demand)

EXAMPLES
light intensity for 3-way light
bulbs (or light bulbs with a
dimmer switch)
change in acceleration for
brakes
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Signal Examples
Radio
Volume Knob
Chip
Placement
Refrigerant
Charging
Process Response Signal Type
Decibels
X-Coordinate
Pounds of
Refrigerant
Dynamic
Static
Static
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Choose the setting that
optimizes the response
T
Static Signal
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Analyzing a Static Signal
y
y
n
i
i
n
=
=

1
Sample Mean
s
y y
n
y
i
i
n
2
2
1
1
=

( )
Sample Variance
SN
y
s
N
=
|
\

|
.
| 10
2
2
*log
SN
n y
L
i i
n
=
|
\

|
.
|

10
1 1
2
1
*log
Signal to Noise Ratio
Nominal is Best

Larger is Best

Smaller is Best SN
n
y
S i
i
n
=
|
\

|
.
|

10
1
2
1
*log
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Example: Spot Welding

Performance Measure: Nugget Size




Robust Performance:
Variation Reduction
Target Attainment







size
Static with Nominal-the-Best Target

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Example: Spot Welding

Performance Measure: Pull Strength




Robust Performance:
Variation Reduction
Maximize Strength







strength
Static with Larger-the-Best Target

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Example: Printed Wiring Boards

Performance Measure: Number of
Soldering Defects




Robust Performance:
Variation Reduction
Minimize Defects







0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 1 2 3 4
No. of Defects
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 5 10 15 20
Static with Smaller-the-Best Target

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Best Fit Line
X1 X2 X3
X4
Slope |
y
Response
x
Signal
MSE
...
Best Fit Line
X1 X2 X3
X4
| = Slope/Sensitivity
y
Response
x
Signal
MSE = Variation
...
Choose the best control setting
that minimizes the overall
variation that will optimize
the response
Dynamic Signal
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Analyzing a Dynamic Signal
Slope (|):
Slope of the Best Fit Line
Mean Square Error (MSE):
Average of the square of the
distance from the response to the
best fit line.
S/N
i
= 10 log |
2
MSE
{ }
Signal to Noise Ratio
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Example: Modular Alternator
Performance Measure: Output DC for 500-
6000 rpm



Ideal function: Varying output
with respect to input
Robust Performance:
Variation Reduction
Ideal function attainment







0
10
20
30
40
50
500 1500 2500 3500 4500 5500 6500 7500
Speed
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
Dynamic with Ideal Function

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Noise Factors
Noise Factors
Control Factors
Signal Factors
Response
Product or
Process
Factors that cannot be controlled or the engineer
decides not to control.
We want to make the response insensitive to noise
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Categories of Noise Factors
External: Environment in which
a product/process works and the
load to which it is subjected.
Unit-to-unit variation: Inevitable
variation in a manufacturing
process leads to variation in the
product from unit to unit.
Deterioration: Individual
components may deteriorate
causing a decrease in
product/process performance as
time passes.
Noise Factors
Control Factors
Signal Factors Response
Product or
Process
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Examples of Noise by Category
External
Environment (Customer Usage Profiles)
Temperature, humidity, vibration
Operator usage
Unit-to-Unit Variation
Manufacturing variation (Process Capability)
Differences in torque on a fastener
Differences in diameter from machining
Raw material variation
Deterioration
Wear over time (Reliability)
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Control Factors
Noise Factors
Control Factors
Signal Factors
Response
Product or
Process
Factors that can be freely specified by the engineer.
May be set at varying levels.
Control factors are specified by the engineer.
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Examples of Control Factors
Injection Molding Process
Material Type
Dimensions
Injection Time
Hold Pressure

Can you name others?
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Desired Response: Fixed Suspension Stiffness (Static)
Suspension
Response
Fixed
Suspension
Stiffness
Control Factors
Suspension Type
(Hydraulic/Pneumatic)
Coil Properties
Placement and Orientation on Vehicle
Initial Stiffness
Size of Shock
Noise Factors
Road Condition
Vehicle Load*
Temperature
Wear Over Time
Vehicle Speed*
Contaminants (Dirt/Salt)
* Noise factors are now considered Signal
factors because they are inputs used to
adjust the target response
P Diagram for Suspension
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P Diagram for Braking
Desired Response: User Adjustable Stopping (Dynamic)
Signal(s)
Force on
Brake Pedal
Response
Stopping
Distance
Control Factors
Pad Material
Caliper Type
Rotor Thickness
Pad Area
Noise Factors
Road Condition
Vehicle Load
Temperature
Wear Over Time
Vehicle Speed
Brake
Stopping Distance
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Robustness Can Be Achieved
Using a Three-step Approach



1. Concept Design
3. Tolerance Design
2. Parameter Design
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1. Concept Design
Various architectures and technologies are
examined before selecting one that will achieve
the desired function of the product or process
and will meet the customer's requirements
The alternatives selected through concept
design can affect the sensitivity to noise factors
and reducing cost
Involves innovation
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2. Parameter Design
The best design is determined at the least cost by:
Running a statistical experiment with lowest cost components;
Selecting optimum values for control factors that will reduce the
variability of the response to noise;

Selecting optimum values for control factors that will shift the
mean of the response toward target; and

Selecting the lowest cost setting for factors that have minimal
effect on the response.

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1) Reduce Variation
2) Adjust to Target
Original Condition
2. Parameter Design
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*Statistical Experimental Design techniques, Signal-to-Noise ratios, and
their application to robustness will be covered in detail in another course.
One tool for achieving the objectives of parameter
design is Statistical Experimental Design.*
In parameter design, the results of an experiment design
are often measured in terms of the Signal-to-Noise* ratio
(S/N), which is an indicator of robustness.
Parameter design achieves robustness
with no increase in the
product/manufacturing cost.
2. Parameter Design
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3. Tolerance Design
Tolerances are tightened and higher-grade materials are specified as required.
Trade-offs are made between the reduction in quality loss due to performance
variation and the increase in product cost.







Tolerance design increases the product/manufacturing
cost and should be done only when parameter design has
not sufficiently reduced variation.
Production
Cost
Quality
Loss
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The Traditional Approach
Traditionally, most engineering
time is spent on concept and
tolerance design, and a small
percentage on parameter design.
Impact of Traditional
Approach
Relying on tolerance
design makes products
more expensive to
manufacture.
Relying on improved
concept design requires
breakthroughs that are
difficult to schedule and
require greater lead time.
Traditional Approach
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Lower product/process cost because we are
using lower cost materials.
Higher quality because we will make our
designs insensitive to variation.
Shorter development time.
If we put a heavier emphasis on
utilizing parameter design, however,
we will have:
Robustness Approach
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Robustness Methodology
Best used early in the design/development cycle.
Applies to all areas in product development cycle.


Ensures the functional
performance of the
product/process is insensitive
to noise.
Decreases manufacturing
process variation.
Product/Process Design
Improves new technologies,
concepts, and designs before
they are put on the "bookshelf."
Ensures that they are usable in a
wide range of applications and
environments.
Technology
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Summary
In this section, you saw:
The high price of the traditional approach to technical
decision making.
The value of adjusting control factors rather than
reducing or eliminating the cause of variation.
The role of parameter design in robustness
methodology.
When and where robustness methodology is best
used in the design/development cycle.
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Why the robustness initiative exists
Management's commitment to the initiative
The education and training process that will be used
The relationship between quality and cost
Basic robustness definitions and concepts
When and where the robustness methodology is used
The relationship between the robustness methodology and
parameter design
Formulation steps for parameter design
Summary