Department of Information and Communication Technology

DIPLOMA IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (NETWORKING) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING Principles Of Communication ETHERNET Network (LAN)
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Improved by W.N.Wahidah Dec2013

Data Communications
Data communications are the exchange of data between two

devices via some form of transmission medium such as wire cable.

DATA

The effectiveness of data communications system depends on

four fundamental characteristics:

1.

2.

3.

Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user. Accuracy. The system must deliver data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.

DATA COMMUNICATION COMPONENTS

Message information/data to be communicated. Consist of text,

numbers, pictures, sound or video. Sender device that sends the data message. Can be computer, workstation, telephone, video etc. Receiver device that receives the message. Can be computer, workstation, telephone, video etc. Medium physical path which a message travels from sender to receiver, wired or wireless. Example of wired medium include : twistedpair wire, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, and wireless medium such as radio waves. Protocol set of rules that governs data communication. Represent agreement between communicating devices.

Elements of Data Communication Systems

1.

Communication devices
i.

ii.

wired devices eg data terminal equipment (DTE), data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE); wireless devices eg 3G, GPRS, mobile phone, laptop, netbook

2.

Data elements
i. ii.

encapsulation eg frames, packets, datagrams; addresses; sequence numbers

3.

Electronic communication methods

Example: simplex, duplex, half-duplex communication, parallel, universal serial bus, serial, infra red, Bluetooth, WiFi, 3G

4.

Transmission medium
Example: coaxial, optical fibre, unshielded twisted pair (UTP), shielded twisted pair (STP), infrared, radio, microwave, satellite

Elements of Data Communication Systems

Communication devices
wired devices eg data terminal equipment (DTE), data circuit-terminating

equipment (DCE);

wireless devices eg 3G, GPRS, mobile phone, laptop, netbook

Basic Data Transmission Concepts:

a) Analog and Digital Signaling Data moves in the form of electromagnetic signals across a transmission medium. Data can be analog or digital. Analog data refers to information that is continuous; Example:
Digital data refers to information that has discrete states. Example:

Analog signal

Digital signal

b)

Data modulation
i. Modulation is the technique by which data is turned into an analog

wave or a digital signal.

A computer with an online or Internet connection that connects over a regular analog phone line includes a modem. This term is derived by combining beginning letters from the words modulator and demodulator. In a modem, the modulation process involves the conversion of the digital computer signals (high and low, or logic 1 and 0 states) to analog audio-frequency (AF)tones. A mechanism that accepts a sequence of data bits and applies modulation to a carrier wave according to the bits is called a modulator A mechanism that accepts a modulated carrier wave and recreates the sequence of data bits that was used to modulate the carrier is called a demodulator
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c) Simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex transmission

SIMPLEX The communication is unidirectional as a one-way street. HALF-DUPLEX Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. It is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. Example: the walkie-talkie systems. FULL-DUPLEX Both stations can transmit and receive data simultaneously. It is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. Example: Telephone network. When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
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d) Multiplexing

Multiplexing is the process of transmitting several different signals or information streams via a single carrier. The transmission of all these signals or streams takes place simultaneously by combining the several signals into one common signal that will efficiently moves through the carrier bandwidth.

e) Point-to-point transmission
Point-to-point provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.

f)

Broadcast transmission
In broadcasting communication, the relationship between the source and the destination is ONE-TO-ALL. There is only one source but all the other hosts are the destinations.

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g)

Bluetooth and 3G
Bluetooth technology is a short-range wireless

communications technology intended to replace the cables connecting many different types of devices, from mobile phones and headsets to heart monitors and medical equipment.
The key features of Bluetooth technology are

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robustness, low power, and low cost. The Bluetooth Specification defines a uniform structure for a wide range of devices to connect and communicate with each other. When two Bluetooth enabled devices connect to each other, this is called pairing. The structure and the global acceptance of Bluetooth technology means any Bluetooth enabled device, almost everywhere in the world, can connect to other Bluetooth enabled 3Gdevices , short for third in Generation isone the another. third generation of mobile located proximity , to telecommunications technology. 3G technology generally refers to the standard of accessibility and speed of mobile devices. It was first used in Japan in the year 2001. The standards of the technology were set by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). This technology enables use of various services like GPS (Global Positioning System), mobile television and video conferencing. It not only enables them to be used worldwide, but also provides with better bandwidth and increased speed.

4G ?

h)

Throughput

i)

Network Throughput refers to the volume of data that can flow through a network. Network Throughput is constrained by factors such as the network protocols used, the capabilities of routers and switches, and the type of cabling, such as Ethernet and fiber optic, used to create a network. In communication networks, such as Ethernet or packet radio, throughput or network throughput is the average rate of successful message delivery over a communication channel. This data may be delivered over a physical or logical link, or pass through a certain network node. The throughput is usually measured in bits per second (bit/s or bps), and sometimes in data packets per second or data Bandwidth packets per time slot. Bandwidth describes the maximum data transfer rate of
a network or Internet connection. It measures how much data can be sent over a specific connection in a given amount of time. For example, a gigabit Ethernet connection has a bandwidth of 1,000 Mbps, (125 megabytes per second). An Internet connection via cable modem may provide 25 Mbps of bandwidth.

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A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this link with T always less than B.

(T<B)

Transmission Flaws
Signals travel through transmission media, which

are not perfect. The signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium. The causes of the flaws or impairment are: NOISE and ATTENUATION

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NOISE
Noise can be defined as an unwanted signal that interferes with the communication or measurement of another signal. A noise itself is a signal that conveys information regarding the source of the noise. For example, the noise from a car engine conveys information regarding the state of the engine.

There are several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise which, may corrupt the signal. 1. Thermal noise : The random motion of
electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
2.

Induced noise : It comes from sources

such as motors and appliances. These devices act as a sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as a receiving antenna.

3.

Crosstalk : It is the effect of one wire on

the other. One wire acts as a sending antenna and the other as the receiving antenna.

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4.

Impulse noise : It is a spike (a signal

ATTENUATION
Attenuation is a loss of signal strength measured

in decibels (dB). It also means a loss of energy. When a signal travels through a medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm after a while.

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RULES OF COMMUNICATION
In any conversation between two people, there are

many rules, or protocols, that the two must follow in order for the message to be successfully delivered and understood. Among the protocols for successful human communication are:
Identification of sender and receiver Agreed-upon medium or channel (face-to-face,

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telephone, letter, photograph) Appropriate communication mode (spoken, written, illustrated, interactive or one-way) Common language Grammar and sentence structure Speed and timing of delivery

RULES OF COMMUNICATION
Protocols are specific to the characteristics of the source,

channel and destination of the message. The rules used to communicate over one medium, like a telephone call, are not necessarily the same as communication using another medium, such as a letter. Protocols define the details of how the message is transmitted, and delivered. This includes issues of:

Message format Message size Timing Encapsulation Encoding Standard message pattern

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RULES OF COMMUNICATION

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RULES OF COMMUNICATION
(1) Message Encoding
Encoding - process of converting thoughts into the language,

symbols, or sounds, for transmission. Decoding - reverses this process in order to interpret the thought. Encoding between hosts must be in an appropriate form for the medium. Messages sent across the network are first converted into bits by the sending host. Each bit is encoded into a pattern of sounds, light waves, or electrical impulses depending on the network media over which the bits are transmitted. The destination host receives and decodes the signals in order to interpret the message.

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RULES OF COMMUNICATION
(2) Message Formatting
Depend on the type of message and the channel that is used

to deliver the message. Each computer message is encapsulated in a specific format, called a frame, before it is sent over the network. Frame - provides the address of the intended destination and the address of the source host. The format and contents of a frame are determined by the type of message being sent and the channel over which it is communicated. Messages that are not correctly formatted are not successfully delivered to or processed by the destination host.

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RULES OF COMMUNICATION
(2) Message Formatting

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RULES OF COMMUNICATION - ACTIVITY

(2) Message Formatting Place the components of the following voice message into the proper location within a frame. Mizi calls his friend Yanti and leaves her a voice message about their homework assignment. Yanti tel no: 012 345 6789 Mizi tel no: 012 987 6543 Voice message: Hi Yanti. Can you help me on question number 2? Thank you.

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RULES OF COMMUNICATION
(3) Message Size
When a long message is sent from one host to another

over a network, it is necessary to break the message into smaller pieces. The rules that govern the size of the pieces, or frames, communicated across the network are very strict. They can also be different, depending on the channel used. Frames that are too long or too short are not delivered.

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RULES OF COMMUNICATION
(3) Message Size
The size restrictions of frames require the source host to

break a long message into individual pieces that meet both the minimum and maximum size requirements. Each piece is encapsulated in a separate frame with the address information, and is sent over the network. At the receiving host, the messages are deencapsulated and put back together to be processed and interpreted.

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RULES OF COMMUNICATION
(4) Message Timing
Access method Determines when is able to send a message. Based on the environment. Hosts on a network need an access method to know when to begin sending messages and how to respond when errors occur.

Flow control How much information can be sent and the speed that it can be delivered. A sending host can transmit messages at a faster rate than the destination host can receive and process. Source and destination hosts use flow control to negotiate correct timing for successful communication.
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RULES OF COMMUNICATION
(4) Message Timing
Response timeout Hosts on the network also have rules that specify how long to wait for responses and what action to take if a response timeout occurs.

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RULES OF COMMUNICATION
(5) Message Patterns
Unicast A one-to-one message pattern. There is only a single destination for the message. Multicast A host needs to send messages using a one-to-many pattern. Delivery of the same message to a group of host destinations simultaneously. Broadcast All hosts on the network need to receive the message at the same time. Represents a one-to-all message pattern. Hosts have requirements for acknowledged versus unacknowledged messages.
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RULES OF COMMUNICATION
(6) Message Patterns
Protocol use in communication All communication, both human and computer, is governed by pre-established rules, or protocols. These protocols are determined by the characteristics of the source, channel and destination. Based on the source, channel and destination, the protocols define the details for the issues of message format, message size, timing, encapsulation, encoding and standard message pattern.

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RULES OF COMMUNICATION - ACTIVITY

Determine if the communication problem described

deals with message format, timing, message pattern or message size.

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IMPORTANCE OF PROTOCOLS
Computers use rules, or protocols, in order to

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communicate. In a wired environment, a local network is defined as an area where all hosts must "speak the same language" or in computer terms "share a common protocol". If devices in a local network did not use the same protocols they would not be able to communicate. Ethernet - The most common set of protocols used on local wired networks. The Ethernet protocol defines many aspects of communication over the local network, including:

STANDARDIZATION OF PROTOCOL
As networks became more widespread,

standards were developed that defined rules by which network equipment from different vendors operated. Standards are beneficial to networking in many ways:
Facilitate design Simplify product development Promote competition Provide consistent interconnections Facilitate training
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Provide more vendor choices for customers

STANDARDIZATION OF PROTOCOL

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STANDARDIZATION OF PROTOCOL
IEEE
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Maintains the networking standards, including

Ethernet and wireless standards. Responsible for approving and maintaining the standards for connections, media requirements and communications protocols. Each technology standard is assigned a number that refers to the committee that is responsible for approving and maintaining the standard. Eg:
Ethernet standards is 802.3.
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100BASE-T

Local Area Network (LAN) ETHERNET Network

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PHYSICAL ADDRESSING
For identifying source and destination hosts.

Every Ethernet network interface has a physical

address assigned to it - Media Access Control (MAC) address. The MAC address identifies each source and destination host on the network. Ethernet network
Are cable based, meaning that a copper or fiber

optic cable connects hosts and networking devices. This is the channel used for communications between the hosts.
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PHYSICAL ADDRESSING

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ETHERNET COMMUNICATION
When messages are sent between hosts on an

Ethernet network, the hosts format the messages into the frame layout that is specified by the standards. Frames, also referred to as Protocol Data Units (PDUs). The format for Ethernet frames specifies the location of the destination and source MAC addresses, and additional information including:
Preamble for sequencing and timing Start of frame delimiter / Frame Header Section
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Length and type of frame / Data Section

Frame Check Sequence (FCS) to detect

ETHERNET COMMUNICATION

Preamble
Defined pattern of alternating 1 and 0 bits used to

synchronize timing.
Frame Header Section
Marks the end of the timing information and start of

the frame.
Destination MAC Address
Contains the destination MAC address (receiver).
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Can be unicast, multicast or broadcast.

ETHERNET COMMUNICATION

Source MAC Address

Contains the source MAC address (sender). This is the unicast address of the Ethernet node

that transmitted the frame.

Length / Type
Support two different uses.
Type - indicates which protocol will receive the data. Length - indicates the number of bytes of data that
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follows this field.

ETHERNET COMMUNICATION

Encapsulated Data
Contains the packet of information being sent. Ethernet requires each frame to be between 64 and

1518 bytes.
Frame Check Sequence
Contains 4-byte value that is created by the device

that sends data and is recalculated by the destination device to check for damaged frames.
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ETHERNET COMMUNICATION
Build a standard IEEE 802.3 Ethernet frame base

on the source and the destination device.

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HIERARCHICAL ETHERNET NETWORK DESIGN

Access layer

Distribution layer
Core layer

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LOGICAL ADDRESS
Physical address
It is physically assigned to the host NIC MAC address does not change

IP address/network address
Also known as logical address Assigned to each host by a network administrator

based on the local network, where the host is located.

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LOGICAL ADDRESS
IP addresses contain two parts:

(1) Identifies the local network.

The network portion of the IP address will be the same for

all hosts connected to the same local network.

(2) Identifies the individual host.

Within the same local network, the host portion of the IP

address is unique to each host.

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To be continue

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