SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING STICK WELDING

WELDING CURRENT
The welding current is an electric current. An electric current is the flow of electrons. Electrons flow through a conductor from negative () to positive (+).

Resistance to the flow of electrons (electricity) produces heat. The greater the resistance, the greater the heat.

Air has a high resistance to current flow. As the electrons jump the air gap between the end of the electrode and the work, a great deal of heat is produced.
Electrons flowing across an air gap produce an arc.

MEASUREMENT
Voltage, or volts (V), is the measurement of electrical pressure.
Voltage controls the maximum gap the electrons can jump to form the arc. Amperage, or amps (A), is the measurement of the total number of electrons flowing. Amperage controls the size of the arc. Wattage is a measurement of the amount of power in the arc. The amount of power, watts, being put into a weld per cm controls the width and depth of the weld bead.

TEMPERATURE
The temperature of a welding arc exceeds 6000OC. The exact temperature depends on the resistance to the current flow. The resistance is affected by the arc length and the chemical composition of the gases formed as the electrode covering burns and vaporizes. As the arc lengthens, the resistance increases, thus causing a rise in the arc temperature. The shorter the arc, the lower the arc temperature produced. Most shielded metal arc welding electrodes have chemicals added to their coverings to stabilize the arc. These arc stabilizers reduce the arc resistance, making it easier to hold an arc. By lowering the resistance, the arc stabilizers also lower the arc temperature. Other chemicals within the gaseous cloud around the arc may raise or lower the resistance.

HEAT
The amount of heat produced is determined by the size of the electrode and the amperage setting. Not all of the heat produced by an arc reaches the weld. Some of the heat is radiated away. Heat also is lost through conduction in the work.

In total, about 50% of all heat produced by an arc is missing from the weld. The 50% of the remaining heat the arc produced is not distributed evenly between both ends of the arc. This distribution depends on the composition and polarity of the electrode's coating.

CURRENTS

The three different types of current used for welding:

1. Alternating current (AC) 2. Direct-current electrode negative (DCEN) Direct-current straight polarity (DCSP) 3. Direct-current electrode positive (DCEP) Direct-current reverse polarity (DCRP)
Each welding current has a different effect on the weld.

Direct-current electrode negative (DCEN) Direct-current straight polarity (DCSP)

In direct-current electrode negative, the electrode is negative, and the work is positive. DCEN welding current produces a high electrode melting rate.

Direct-current electrode positive (DCEP) Direct-current reverse polarity (DCRP)

In direct-current electrode positive, the electrode is positive, and the work is negative. DCEP current produces the best welding arc characteristics.

Alternating current (AC)

In alternating current, the electrons change direction every 1/120 of a second so that the electrode and work alternate from anode to cathode.

The rapid reversal of the current flow causes the welding heat to be evenly distributed on both the work and the electrode; that is, half on the work and half on the electrode.
The even heating gives the weld bead a balance between penetration and buildup.

TYPES OF WELDING POWER

Constant Voltage (CV) - The arc voltage remains constant at the selected setting even if the amperage increases or decreases. Rising Arc Voltage (RAV) - The arc voltage increases as the amperage increases.

Constant Current (CC) - The total welding current (watts) remains the same. This type of power is also called Drooping Arc Voltage (DAV), or droopers, because the arc voltage decreases as the amperage increases.

TYPES OF WELDING POWER

TYPES OF WELDING POWER

TYPES OF WELDING POWER

TYPES OF WELDING POWER

The shielded arc process requires a constant current arc voltage characteristic. This output power supply provides a reasonably high open circuit voltage before the arc is struck. The high open circuit voltage quickly stabilizes the arc. The arc voltage rapidly drops to the lower closed circuit level after the arc is struck. With a constant voltage output, small changes in arc length would cause the power (watts) to make large swings. The welder would lose control of the weld.

OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE

Open circuit voltage is the voltage at the electrode before striking an arc (with no current being drawn).

This voltage is usually between 50 V and 80 V.

The higher the open circuit voltage, the easier it is to strike an arc. The higher voltage also increases the chance of electrical shock.

CLOSED/OPERATING CIRCUIT VOLTAGE

Operating voltage, or closed circuit voltage, is the voltage at the arc during welding. This voltage will vary with arc length, type of electrode being used, type of current, and polarity. The voltage will be between 17 V and 40 V.

ARC BLOW

When electrons flow they create lines of magnetic force that circle around the line of flow.
Lines of magnetic force are referred to as magnetic flux lines. The force that they place on the wire is usually small. However, when welding with very high amperages, 600 amperes or more, the force may cause the wire to move.

A flowing current or residual magnetic field in a plate being welded will result in uneven flux lines. These uneven flux lines can, in turn, cause an arc to move during a weld. This movement of the arc is called arc blow. Arc blow makes the arc drift like a string would drift in wind. Arc blow is more noticeable in corners, at the ends of plates, and when the work lead is connected to only one side of a plate.

To control arc blow, the work lead is connected to the end of the weld joint, and weld should be made in the opposite direction, or two leads must be used, one on each side of the weld.
The best way to eliminate arc blow is to use alternating current. AC usually does not allow the flux lines to build.

TYPES OF POWER SOURCES

A welding transformer uses the alternating current (AC) supplied to the welding shop at high voltage to produce the low voltage welding power.

Transformer

Inverter
By using solid state electronic parts the incoming power in a inverter welder is changed from 60 cycles a second to several thousand cycles a second (ACHF). This higher frequency allows the use of a transformer that may be as light as 7 pounds and still do the work of a standard transformer weighing 100 pounds.

Additional electronic parts remove the high frequency for the output welding power. The use of electronics in the inverter type welder allows it to produce any desired type of welding power. Before the invention of this machine, each type of welding required a separate machine. Now a single welding machine can produce the specific type of current needed.

Generator & Alternator

Generators and alternators both produce welding electricity from a mechanical power source. In an alternator, magnetic lines of force rotate inside a coil of wire. An alternator can produce AC only. In a generator, a coil of wire rotates inside a magnetic force. A generator can produce AC or DC. It is possible for alternators and generators to both use diodes to change the AC to DC welding.

Rectifier
Alternating welding current can be converted to direct current by using a series of rectifiers. A rectifier allows current to flow in one direction only.

DUTY CYCLE
Welding machines produce internal heat at the same time they produce the welding current. Except for automatic welding machines, welders are rarely used every minute for long periods of time. The welder must take time to change electrodes, change positions, or change parts. Shielded metal arc welding never continues for long periods of time. The duty cycle is the percentage of time a welding machine can be used continuously. A 60% duty cycle means that out of every ten minutes, the machine can be used for six minutes at the maximum rated current. When providing power at this level, it must be cooled off for four minutes out of every ten minutes.

The duty cycle increases as the amperage is lowered and decreases for higher amperages.

Most welding machines weld at a 60% rate or less.

Therefore, most manufacturers list the amperage rating for a 60% duty cycle on the nameplate that is attached to the machine. Other duty cycles are given on a graph in the owner's manual.

The following formula is for estimating the duty cycle at other than rated output and for estimating other than rated output current at a specified duty cycle:

PROCESS

SMAW
Shielded metal arc welding uses the heat of an electric arc between a covered metal electrode and the work. Shielding comes from the decomposition of the electrode flux coating. Filler metal is supplied by the electrode core wire and covering. This process is manually applied. The basic equipment is a power source, electrode cable, work cable, an electrode holder, a work clamp, and the electrode. Electrodes for SMAW operate variously on AC (alternating current), DCEP (reverse polarity), or DCEN (straight polarity).

SMAW
SMAW is the most widely used welding process because of its low cost, flexibility, portability, and versatility. The SMAW process is very flexible in terms of the metal thicknesses that can be welded and the variety of positions it can be used in. Metal as thin as 2 mm thick to several feet thick can be welded using the same machine with different setting.

The flexibility of the process also allows metal in this thickness range to be welded in any position.
SMAW is a very portable process because it is easy to move the equipment and engine-driven generator type welders are available.

The process is versatile, and it's used to weld almost any metal or alloy, including cast iron, aluminum, stainless steel, and nickel.

The electrode numbering for SMAW electrodes is shown below:

COVERED ELECTRODES

A shielded metal arc weld is strengthened by adding alloying elements to the electrode covering. Unfortunately, some ingredients and the binder in the covering can attract and hold moisture (a source of hydrogen), which can cause cracking in certain metals. A group of electrodes specifically formulated to result in weld deposits having very low levels of hydrogen are referred to as low hydrogen. Electrodes that are classified as low hydrogen have identification numbers ending with 5, 6, or 8.

The electrode coating provides the following: 1. Arc stabilization from ionizing elements (which dictate the usability of the electrode on AC, DCEP, or DCEN). 2. Gas shielding for the weld puddle when some of the coating breaks down. 3. Slagging agents contained in the coating that remove impurities from the work surface and weld puddle. 4. Deoxidizers, contained in the coating that reduce the tendency for porosity in the weld. 5. An insulating blanket formed by the slag that protects the cooling weld metal from the atmosphere. 6. Alloying elements contained in the coating that strengthen the weld metal. 7. Increased weld metal deposition, when iron powder is incorporated in the coating.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Low initial investment cost 2. Simple and operationally reliable 3. Low cost filler materials 4. Wide range of filler materials

5. Same equipment for all materials

6. Spans a large thickness range 7. All welding positions

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Slow (changing electrodes) 2. A layer of solidified slag must be removed 3. Low-hydrogen electrodes require special storage 4. Low deposition efficiency