WIS5 Weldability

Welding Inspection
Weldability of Steels
By
Mohd Faisal Yusof
World Centre for Materials Joining Technology
Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd
Classification of Steel
Steels are classified into groups as follows
Plain Carbon Steels
1. Low Carbon Steel 0.01 0.3% Carbon 2. Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 0.6% Carbon 3. High Carbon Steel 0.6 1.4% Carbon
Plain carbon steels contain only iron & carbon as main alloying elements, traces of Mn, Si, Al, S & P may also be present
The following basic foundation information on metallurgy will not form any part of your CSWIP examination. A most important function in the metallurgy of steels, is the ability of iron to dissolve carbon in solution The carbon atom is very much smaller than the iron atom and does not replace it in the atomic structure, but fits between it
Iron atoms
Carbon atoms
Iron is an element that can exist in 2 types of cubic structures, depending on the temperature. This is an important feature
At temperatures below Ac/r 1, (LCT) iron exists like this
Alpha iron
This structure occurs below 723 C and is body centred, or BCC in structure It can only dissolve up to 0.02% Carbon Also known as Ferrite
or BCC iron
Compressed representation could appear like this

At temperatures above the Ac/r 3, (UCT) iron exists like this
Gamma iron
This structure occurs above the UCT in Plain Carbon Steels and is FCC in structure. It can dissolve up 2.06% Carbon Also called Austenite
or FCC iron
Compressed representation could appear like this

If steel is heated and then cooled slowly in equilibrium, then exact reverse atomic changes take place
If a steel that contains more than 0.3% Carbon is cooled quickly, then the carbon does not have time to diffuse out of solution, hence trapping the carbon in the BCC form of iron. This now distorts the cube to an irregular cube, or tetragon This supersaturated solution is called Martensite and is the hardest structure that can be produced in steels
If some steels are cooled quickly their structure looks like this
Martensite can be defined as: A supersaturated solution of carbon in BCT iron (Body Centred Tetragonal) It is the hardest structure that can be thermally produced in steels Compressed representation could appear like this
Solubility of Carbon in BCC & FCC phases of steels Ferrite: a Low carbon solubility. Maximum 0.02%
Austenite: g High carbon solubility. Maximum 2.06% Martensite: The hardest phase in steels, which is produced by rapid cooling from the Austenite phase It mainly occurs below 300 C
IRON CARBON DIAGRAM

TTT DIAGRAM
Diagram showing the Relationship between Carbon Content, Mechanical Properties, Microstructure and Uses of Plain Carbon Steels in the Normalised Condition
Classification of Steel
An Alloy steel is one that contains more than Iron & Carbon as a main alloying elements Alloy steels are divided into 2 groups
1. Low Alloy Steels < 7% extra alloying elements
2. High Alloy Steels > 7% extra alloying elements
Solid solution
(a)
substitutional
(b)
interstitial
Steel Weld Metallurgy

Carbon: Major element in steels, influences strength,toughness and ductility Manganese: Secondary only to carbon for strength toughness and ductility, secondary deoxidizer and also acts as a desulphuriser. Silicon: Primary deoxidizer
Molybdenum: Effects harden ability, and has high creep strength at high temperatures. Steels containing molybdenum are less susceptible to temper brittleness than other alloy steels. Chromium: Widely used in stainless steels for corrosion resistance, increases hardness and strength but reduces ductility.
Nickel: Used in stainless steels, high resistance to corrosion from acids, increases strength and toughness
Aluminum: Deoxidizser, grain refinement Sulphur: Machine ability
Tungsten: High temperature strength

Titanium: Elimination of carbide precipitation
Vanadium: Fine grain Toughness
Copper: Corrosion resistance and strength

Increased strength: C, Si, Cu, Mn, Mo (also Nb and V; their exact effect depends on other factors also such as the rolling temperature and time, amount of carbon and nitrogen present, etc.) Hardening capacity: C, Mn, Mo, Cr, Ni, Cu Toughness: Ni, grain refinement (achieved via the presence of Nb, V, Al, Ti) Elevated Temperature Properties: Atmospheric corrosion Resistance: Cu, Ni Cr, Mo, V

The grain structure of steel will influence its weldability, mechanical properties and in-service performance. The grain structure present in a material is influenced by:
The type and number of elements present in the material The temperature reached during welding and or PWHT. The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT
Cooling Rate
The cooling rate of the weld zone depends on the following factors: Weld heat : Also call arc energy, is the amount of electrical energy that is supplied to the welding arc over a given weld length ( an inch or mm)
Thickness of material
Preheating
Heat Affected Zone
The parent material undergoes microstructure changes due to the influence of the welding process. This area, which lies between the fusion boundary and the unaffected parent material, is called the heat affected zone (h.a.z.).
Heat Affected Zone
Heat Affected Zone

The extent of changes will be dependent upon the following :-
Material composition Cooling rate, fast cooling higher hardness
Arc energy, high arc energy wider HAZ

The HAZ can not be eliminated in a fusion weld
Arc energy
Amps = 200 Volts = 32 Travel speed = 240 mm/min Arc energy= Amps x volts Travel speed mm/sec X 1000
Arc energy= 200 X 32 X 60 240 X 1000 Arc energy = 1.6 kJ/mm

Arc Energy
High arc energy - slow cooling
Low toughness
Reduction in strength Low arc energy - fast cooling Increased hardness
Hydrogen entrapment
Lack of fusion
Carbon Equivalent
The CE of steel primarily relates to its hardenability. Higher the CE, lower the weldability
Higher the CE, higher the susceptibility to brittleness

The CE of a given material depends on its alloying elements
The CE is calculated using the following formula

CE = C + Mn + Cr + Mo + V + Cu + Ni 5 15 6
Hardenability:The relative ability of a ferrous alloy to form martensite when quenched from high temperatures.
Weldability
Weldability can be defined as the ability of a material to be welded by most of the common welding processes, and
retain the properties for which it has been designed.

A steel which can be welded without any real dangerous consequences is said to possess Good Weldability. Hardenability influence the weldability.The higher the hardenability the poorer the weldability.
Weldability
Weldability is a function of many inter-related factors but these may be summarised as:
Composition of parent material

Joint design and size Process and technique
Access
Weldability
It is very difficult to asses weldability in absolute terms therefore it is normally assessed in relative terms
Weldability
There are many factors which affect weldabilty e.g. material type, welding parameters amps, volts travel speed, heat input.
Weldability
Other factors affecting weldabilty are welding position and welding techniques.
Weldability
Basically speaking weldabilty is the ease with which a material or materials can be welded to give an acceptable joint
Cracks
Process Cracks Hydrogen induced cold cracking (HICC)

Solidification cracking (Hot Tearing) Lamellar tearing
Weld Decay
Cracks
When considering any type of crack mechanism, three elements must be present for its occurrence:
Stress: stress is always present in weldments, through local expansion and contraction.
Restraint: may be a local restriction, or through the plates being welded.

Susceptible microstructure: the structure is often made susceptible to cracking through welding, e.g high hardness
Hydrogen Cracks
Hydrogen Cracking
Hydrogen causes general embrittlment and in welds may lead directly to cracking,
A combination of four factors is necessary to cause HAZ hydrogen cracking
Hydrogen Cracking
Characteristics Also known as hydrogen induced cold cracking , delay cracking , underbead cracking and chevron. Hydrogen is the major influence to this type of cracking. Source of hydrogen may be from moisture or hydrocarbon such as grease , paint on the parent material, damp welding fluxes or from condensation of parent material Hydrogen is absorbed by the weld pool from the arc atmosphere.
During cooling, much of this hydrogen escapes from the solidified bead by the diffusion but some also diffuses into the HAZ of the parent metal. Type of cracking is intergranular along grain boundaries or transganular Requires susceptible grain structure, stress and hydrogen and low temperature is reached. Most likely in HAZ for Carbon Manganese steel and in weld metal for HSLA steel.
Hydrogen Cracking
Micro Alloyed Steel
Carbon Manganese Steel
Hydrogen induced weld metal cracking

Hydrogen induced HAZ cracking
Hydrogen Cracking
Factors responsible: Hydrogen cracking occurs when the conditions outlined in 1 4 occur simultaneously : 1.Susceptible grain structure hardness value > 350 V.P.N That part of HAZ which experiences a high enough temperature for the parent steel to transform rapidly from ferrite to austenite and back again,produces microstructures which are usually harder and more susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. 2.Hydrogen level - > 15 ml/100g This is inevitably present, derived from moisture in the fluxes used in welding and from other sources.
Hydrogen Cracking
3.Temperature < 200oC for any steel and < 150oC for structural steel.
The greatest risk of cracking occurs when temperatures near ambient are reached and cracking may thus take place several hours after welding has been completed ( normally after 72 hours ) 4.Stress > 50% yield strength of parent metal
These arise inevitably from thermal contractions during cooling and may be supplemented by other stresses developed as a result of rigidity in the parts to be joined.
Hydrogen Cracking
Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking
Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint preparations, and slows down the cooling rate Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from contamination The use of a low hydrogen welding process such as TIG or MIG/MAG The use of Nickel and Austenitic filler metal
Ensure all welding is carried out under controlled environmental

conditions Ensure good fit-up as to reduced stress The use of a PWHT with maintaining the pre- heat temperature Avoid poor weld profiles Use low hydrogen electrodes and baked as per manufacturer instructions
Solidification Cracks
Solidification Cracking
Characteristics
Also
known as hot cracking or center line cracking or crater cracking and liquation cracking
Solidification
cracking is intergranular type of cracking that is along the grain boundaries of the weld metal.
It
occurs during the terminal stages of solidification,when the stresses developed across the adjacent grains exceed the strength of the almost completely solidified weld metal.
Impurities
such as sulphur and phosphorous and carbon pick - up from parent metal increase the risk of cracking
High
joint restraint which produce high residual stress will

increase the susceptibility to this type of cracking.

Occurs during weld solidification process from liquidus to solidus and at the last area to solidified. Steels with high sulphur content (low ductility at elevated temperature ) whereby produce hot shortness to the weld metal FeS form films at the grain boundaries whereby reduce the strength of the weld metal. Addition of manganese will form MnS and forms globules instead of films( FeS) Occur longitudinally down center of weld Welding process that most susceptible to this type of cracking are SAW and MIG/MAG with spray transfer due to high dilution rate.
Intergranular liquid film along the grain boundary

Weld Centerline
Factors responsible :
Metallurgical factors
a)
Freezing temperature range higher freezing range more susceptible to solidification cracking due to presence of FeS Primary solidification Phase Less than 5% delta ferrite Surface tension concave more susceptible than convex weld shape Grain structure of fusion zone Coarse columnar grain more susceptible especially with high energy welding process.
b) c)
d)
Mechanical factors
a) b)
Contraction stresses Thicker material more susceptible. Degree of restraint poor fit - up
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
Use low dilution welding process
The use of high manganese and low carbon content fillers Control sulphur ,keep below 0.06% Maintain a low carbon content Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the joint during welding The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of impurities Use proper joint design, use Single J instead of single V Clean joint preparations, free from oil, paints and any other sulphur containing product. Joint design selection depth to width ratios
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar Tearing
Characteristics
Lamellar tearing has a step like appearance due
to the solid inclusions linking up under the influences of welding stresses Occurs at beneath of HAZ or near HAZ
It forms when the welding stresses act in the short transverse direction of the material (through thickness direction)
Low ductile materials containing high levels of impurities are very susceptible
Lamellar Tearing
Occur only in rolled direction of the parent material Associated with restrained joints subjected to through thickness stresses on corners and tees Presence of elongated stringers such of nonmetallic inclusion such as silicates and sulfides parallel to steels rolling plane will produce poor through thickness ductility of the plate. Tearing will triggered by this such non metallic inclusion near the weld or it just outside HAZ during weld contraction.
Lamellar Tearing
Step like appearance
Cross section
Lamellar Tearing
Susceptible joint types
Corner butt weld (single-bevel)
Tee fillet weld
Tee butt weld (double-bevel)
Lamellar Tearing
Critical area
Critical area
Critical area
Lamellar Tearing
Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing
The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of impurities ( Z type material )
Short Tensile Tests

A test for a materials susceptibility to lamellar tearing
Friction Welded Caps Short Tensile Specimen Sample of Parent Material Through Thickness Ductility
The results are given as a STRA value Short Transverse Reduction in Area
Lamellar Tearing
Change joint design
Lamellar Tearing
Modifying a Tee joint to avoid lamellar tearing
Susceptible Non-susceptible Improved
Susceptible
Non-susceptible
Susceptible
Less susceptible
Gouge base metal and fill with weld metal before welding the joint
Prior buttering of the joint with a ductile layer of weld metal may avoid lamellar tearing World Centre for Materials Joining Technology
Lamellar Tearing
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing
Susceptible
Non-Susceptible
Prior welding both plates may be grooved to avoid lamellar tearing
An open corner joint may be selected to avoid lamellar tearing
Lamellar Tearing
Change joint design
Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the joint during welding
The use of buttering runs with low strength weld metal

Hydrogen precautions e.g use low hydrogen electrodes Shift welding process such as Electro slag welding
Use forging or casting joint.
Place soft filler wire between the joint e.g T joint to reduce stresses during expansion and contraction of weld metal.
Pre heating helps on removal of Hydrogen on the plate.
Weld Decay
Weld Decay
Characteristics
Weld decay may occurs in unstabilized austenitic stainless
steels with carbon content above 0.1%
Also
known as knife line attack or crack
Chromium carbide precipitation takes place at the critical range of 450oC-850oC (sensitising temperature )
At
this temperature range carbon is absorbed by the chromium, which causes a local reduction in chromium content by promoting chromium carbides.
Loss of chromium content results in lowering the materials resistance to corrosion attack allowing rusting to occur
Precautions for Weld Decay

The use of a low carbon grade stainless steel e.g. 304L, 316L, 316ELC with carbon content < 0.03% The use of a stabilized grade stainless steel e.g. 321, 347, 348 recommended for severe corrosive conditions and high temperature operating conditions Standard grades may require PWHT, this involves heating the material to a temperature over 1100oC and quench the material, this restores the chromium content at the grain boundary, a major disadvantage of this heat treatment is the high amount of distortion
Fatigue Cracks
Fatigue Testing
Fatigue Cracks
Fatigue cracks occur under cyclic stress conditions
Fracture normally occurs at a change in section, notch and weld defects i.e stress concentration area All welded materials are susceptible to fatigue cracking Fatigue cracking starts at a specific point referred to as a initiation point The fracture surface is smooth in appearance sometimes displaying beach markings
The final mode of failure may be brittle or ductile or a combination of both

Fatigue Cracks
Secondary mode of failure ductile fracture rough fibrous appearance Fatigue fracture surface smooth in appearance
Initiation points / weld defects

Fatigue Cracks
A fatigue failure on a small bore pipe work
Precautions against Fatigue Cracks

Toe grinding, profile grinding. The elimination of poor profiles The elimination of partial penetration welds and weld defects
Operating conditions under the materials endurance limits

The elimination of notch effects e.g. mechanical damage cap/root undercut The selection of the correct material for the service conditions of the component
7 x Initiation points at fillet weld toes
2) 45 Ductile fracture
1) Characteristic Fatigue fracture.

2) 45 Ductile fracture.
3) Small area of plain strain.
2 3
Initiation point at weld toe. 1) Characteristic Fatigue radius & fracture.

3) Ductile fracture
2) Plain strain effect
3
3
a
2
b
2
c
3
= Initiation at points in weld root 1) Characteristic Fatigue radius (Beach marks)

2) Ductile shear & shear lips.

2
Initiation point.
2 1
2
1) Characteristic Fatigue radius & fracture. Initiation point is on the edge of the shaft.
Initiation point at the toe of the weld. 1) Brittle fracture.
1
2 2 2
Characteristic chevrons.
2) Areas of shear where planes of fracture join.
Direction of fracture initiation, but the point is off the specimen.
1) Characteristic chevrons. 1) Brittle fracture.

Initiation point at the machined notch. 2) Brittle fracture.
1) Characteristic Fatigue radius and fracture.

Initiation point at the machined notch.

2) Ductile fracture with shear lips. 2 1 3 2 2 2 2
1) Characteristic Fatigue radius & fracture. 3) Area of plain strain effect.

Any Any Questions? Questions?
Questions
QU 1. Briefly discuss the four essential factors for hydrogen cracking to occur QU 2. State four precautions to reduce the chance of hydrogen cracking QU 3. In which type of steel is weld decay is experienced and state how it can be prevented
QU 4. State the precautions to reduce the chances of solidification cracking

QU 5. State four the essential factors for lamellar tearing to occur

WIS5 Weldability

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Welding Inspection

Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

At temperatures below Ac/r 1, (LCT) iron exists like this

Compressed representation could appear like this

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

At temperatures above the Ac/r 3, (UCT) iron exists like this

Compressed representation could appear like this

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

IRON CARBON DIAGRAM

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

2. High Alloy Steels > 7% extra alloying elements

Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Steel Weld Metallurgy

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Steel Weld Metallurgy

Aluminum: Deoxidizser, grain refinement Sulphur: Machine ability

Tungsten: High temperature strength

Vanadium: Fine grain Toughness

Copper: Corrosion resistance and strength

Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd

Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Steel Weld Metallurgy

Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Heat Affected Zone

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Heat Affected Zone

Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Heat Affected Zone

Material composition Cooling rate, fast cooling higher hardness

Arc energy, high arc energy wider HAZ

Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Arc energy= 200 X 32 X 60 240 X 1000 Arc energy = 1.6 kJ/mm

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Higher the CE, higher the susceptibility to brittleness

The CE is calculated using the following formula

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

retain the properties for which it has been designed.

Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Composition of parent material

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003 TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology