It is a framework or plan or Blueprint

developed to control the collection of data is called

research design.

Research design is an absolute essentiality in
research irrespective of the type of research (e.g.,
exploratory or descriptive), as it ensures that the data
collected is appropriate, economical and accurate.


RESEARCH DESIGN
A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to
research purpose with economy in procedure.

A research design is a conceptual
structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blue print for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data.

Meaning
An activity and time based plan.

A plan always based on the research question.

A guide for selecting sources and types of
information.

A framework for specifying the relationship among
the studys variable.

A procedural outline for every research activity.

What is the study about?

Why is the study being made?

Where will the study be carried out?

What type of data is required?

Where can the required data be found?

What time period the study includes?

What will be the sample design?

What techniques of data collection to be used?

How will the data be analyzed?

In what style the report be prepared?
Components of research design
It is a plan that specifies the sources and
types of information relevant to the research
problem.

It is a strategy specifying which approach will
be used for gathering and analyzing the
data.

It includes the time and cost budget since
most studies are done under these two
constraints.

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design must, contain

1. A clear statement of the research problem;

2. Procedures and techniques to be used for
gathering information;

3. The population to be studied; and

4. Methods to be used in processing and

5. Analyzing data.
IMPORTANT FEATURES OF RESEARCH DESIGN


Research Design is needed because it facilitates
the smooth sailing of the various research operations,
thereby making research as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money.

NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
It stands for advance planning of the
methods in collecting relevant data and
techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping
in view the objective of the research and the
availability of staff, time and money.


The design helps the researcher to
organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be
possible for him to look for flaws and
inadequacies.
NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
FEATURES OF GOOD DESIGN
A good design is often characterized by flexible, appropriate, efficient and
economical.

The design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analyzed is considered a good design.

The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the
best design in many investigations.

A research design which yields maximal information and provides an
opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is
considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research
problems.

The question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research
problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied.

One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research
problems.

VARIABLES

A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called variables. As
such concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of variables.

Continuous Variables - Age is an example
Non Continuous Variables - Number of children
Dependent & Independent Variables
Eg. For instance height depends upon age, then
Height is a dependant variable and
Age is an independent variable.

The Independent Variable (IV) is the causal variable
The Dependent Variable (DV) is the effect variable
Extraneous Variables
Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may
affect the dependant variable are termed as extraneous variable.

Multiple Variables
You are interested in finding out which color, type, and smell of
flowers are preferred by butterflies for pollination.
Control
Basic Research Objectives and Research Design

To gain background information, to define terms, to clarify problems
and develop hypotheses, to establish research priorities, to develop questions to
be answered- Exploratory

To describe and measure marketing phenomena at a point in time-
Descriptive

To determine causality, test hypotheses, to make if-then statements, to answer
questions-Causal
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Phase I
Exploratory
Phase II
Descriptive
Phase III
Explanatory
Types of Research Designs
Exploratory Research
Literature
Search
Experience
survey
Focus Group
Conclusive Research
Descriptive
Research
Panel Study
Longitudinal Design
Cross sectional Design
Experimental Research or casual
research
Exploratory Research Design

Exploratory research is conducted to explore a
problem at its preliminary stage, to get some
basic idea about the solution at preliminary
stage of a research study.

It is most commonly unstructured,
informal research i.e. undertaken to gain
background information about the general
nature of the research problem.

The major purpose of exploratory research to identify
the problem more specifically.

Exploratory study is used in the initial stages of research.

In the early stage of research, we usually lack from sufficient
understanding of the problem to formulate a specific hypothesis.
Further, there are often several tentative explanations.

Example: Sales are down because our prices are too high, our dealers
or sales representatives are not doing a good job, Our advertisement
is weak and so on. In this scenario, very little information is available
to point out, what is the actual cause of the problem.

Under what circumstances is exploratory study ideal?

To gain an insight into the problem

To generate new product ideas

To list all possibilities. Among the several
possibilities, we need to prioritize the possibilities
which seem likely.

To develop hypothesis occasionally.

To establish priorities so that further research can
be conducted.

To pre-test a draft questionnaire.


Example, a shirt manufacturer sponsored a survey to
find the percentage of executives purchasing
different sizes a shirt. The researcher was asked to
record the sizes 36, 38, 40, 42, 44 as indicated by the
executives.

The exploratory survey indicated that quite a good
percentage of executives indicated the size as 39 and 41
(which were either imported or tailor made). This
information led to change the questionnaire to
include these options.
Exploratory Research Methods
Types of
Exploratory
Research
Literatur
e search
Experience
survey
Focus
group
Analysis
of
selected
cases
Literature Search
This refers to referring to a literature to develop a new
hypothesis. The literature referred are trade journals,
professional journals, market research finding publications,
statistical publications etc.

Example: Suppose a problem is Why are sales down? This can
quickly be analysed with the help of published data which should
indicate whether the problem is an industry problem or a
firm problem. Three possibilities exist to formulate the
hypothesis.

1. The companys market share has declined but industrys figures
are normal.
2. The industry is declining and hence the companys market
share is also declining.
3. The industrys share is going up but the companys share is
declining.

Experience survey

An exploratory research technique in which individuals
who are knowledgeable about particular research problem are
surveyed.

When we interview persons in an experience survey, we
should seek their ideas about important issues or aspects of the
subject and discover what is important across the subjects range of
knowledge.

What is being done?
What has been tried in the past without success?
How have things changed?
What problems areas and barriers can be seen?
Who is involved in decisions and what roles does person play?
Focus group

Most widely used technique.

In a focus group, a small number of individuals are
brought together to study and talk about some topic of
interest.

The discussion is co-ordinated by a moderator.

The group usually is of 8-12 persons.

While selecting these persons, care to be taken to see
that they should have a common background and have
similar experiences in buying.
This is required because there should not be a conflict
among the group members on the common issues that
are being discussed.

Focus groups should be taped (audio) or videoed.
Videoing can be more difficult and intrusive but is often
worthwhile.

Permission of the participants should always be
sought for taping/ videoing.

The following should be the characteristics of a
moderator/ facilitator:

Listening
Memory
Encouragement
Learning
Sensitivity
Intelligence
Kindly firm
Case studies

Analyzing a selected case sometimes gives an
insight into the problem which is being researched.

Case histories of companies which have undergone a
similar situation may be available.

These studies are well studied to carry out exploratory
research. However the result of investigation of case
histories are always considered suggestive, rather than
conclusive.

CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH

This is a research having clearly defined
objectives.

In this type of research, specific courses of
action are taken to solve the problem.

Conclusive research are of two types.

Conclusive
research
Descriptive
research
Experimental
research or Causal
research

Descriptive research

It concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular
individual , group , frequency of occurrence.

Researcher must able to define clearly, what he wants to measure
and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with the
clear cut definition of population

Descriptive research is undertaken to provide answers to questions
of who, what, where, when, why and how.

Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned
with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or a
group.
When to use descriptive study?

To determine the characteristics of market such as
Size of the market
Buying power of the consumer
Producing usage pattern
To find out the market share for the product
To track the performance of a brand

To determine the association of the two variable such as Ad and
sales

To make a prediction. We might be interested in sales forecasting for
the next three years, so that we can plan for training of new sales
representatives.

To estimate the proportion of people in a specific population, who behave
in a particular way? Example: What percentage of population in a
particular geographical location would be shopping in a particular shop?

Adjective typifying
the research
I llustrative question
Who Who has been most consistent batsman among Sachin, Dravid and
Ganguly in the test matches?
Which Which is the cricket ground where maximum number of centuries
have been scored?
Which are the companies that have declared more than 50%
dividend for the year 2010-2011?
What What is the average salary offered to MBA students with marketing
specialisation?
Where Where the responses to a particular advertisement were most
favourable, among all the major cities where the test marketing was
carried out?
When When did the manufacturing process go out of control
How (Much,
Many)
How much productivity increased in an organisation after a training
to the employees?
How many Mutual funds have paid more than 10% dividend for
their Tax Saver Scheme.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Longitudinal study
Cross - section studty
Longitudinal study

These are the studies in which an event or occurrence is
measured again and again over a period of time.


This is also known as Time Series Study. Through longitudinal
study, the researcher comes to know how the market changes over
time.

Longitudinal studies are quite poplar in social and behavioural
sciences, socio economic research, banking and finance etc.

Examples are

Experiment pattern over a period of time of an individual or
group of individuals. R& D Expenditure by a sector of companies like
pharmaceuticals etc.

Quality of Life parameters of a state or a country.

Longitudinal research relies on panel data and panel methods.

It involves fixing a panel consisting of fixed sample of subjects
that are measured repeatedly.

The panel members are those who have agreed to provide
information at a specific interval over an extended period.

For example, data obtained from panels formed to
provide information on market shares are based on an
extended period of time, but also allow the researcher to
examine changes in market share over time. New
members may be included in the panel as an when there is
a dropout of the existing members or to maintain
representativeness.
Two types of panel are









Advantages of Longitudinal studies

Discover trends and patterns of change

Locate the times when the trend or pattern changed - it might lead to
investigating the factors that cased the change.








True
Panel









Omnibus
panel
Cross sectional study
These are the studies that are conducted over a
group of companies or organizations over the same point
of time. Such research makes observations at one and
the same point of time for all the entities under study.

Example: Placement offers to MBA students of 2011 batch at all
IIMs.
P/E ratio of all automobiles companies as on 31
st
March 2012
Conducting opinion poll on a particular day


The major advantage of cross-sectional research is that
data can be collected on many entities of different
kinds in a short span of time. Since the data is collected
at one point of time, it can be easily collected at LOWER
COST.

Cross sectional study is that it is cheaper and
faster to conduct such a study. The main disadvantage
of such study is that it reveals little as how to how the
changes occur.
Cross sectional design may be either single or
multiple cross sectional design depending on the
number of samples drawn from a population.
Cohort analysis consists of a series of surveys
conducted at appropriate time intervals, where the
cohort serves as the basic unit of analysis.

A cohort is a group of respondents who
experience the same event within the same time
interval.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH OR CASUAL RESEARCH


The casual research is concerned with finding the
root cause of a symptom.

For example, if the sale of a product is declining, or if
customers prefer a product over other similar product(s), one
may like to know the cause(s) for the same.

Thus, this type of study encompasses situations where we
study the impact or influence of one factor (cause) on
some other factor (effect). The influencing factors could
be one or more than one.


Some of the examples of casual research are

The factors influencing buying behaviour of customers.

The factors influencing the motivating of an employee.
Advertising expenses is the cause (called independent variable) and

Sales (called dependent variable) is the effect.
Casual variables is also called explanatory variable as it
explains the effect or impact on the dependent variable.
Experimental Research
An experiment is defined as manipulating (changing
values/situations) one or more independent variables to see
how the dependent variable(s) is/are affected, while also
controlling the affects of additional extraneous variables.

Independent variables: those over which the researcher
has control and wishes to manipulate i.e. package size, ad
copy, price.

Dependent variables: those over which the researcher has
little to no direct control, but has a strong interest in testing
i.e. sales, profit, market share.

Extraneous variables: those that may effect a dependent
variable but are not independent variables.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTS
Types of
Experiments
Laboratory
Experiments
Field
experiments:
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS


The principle of Replication

The principle of Randomization

The Principle of Local control


Types of Experiment Research Design

Informal experimental design
Before and after without
control design
After only with control
design
Before and after with control
design
Formal experimental
design
Completely Randomized Design.
Two group simple randomized design
Random replication design
Randomized Block Design
Latin Square design
Factorial designs
VALIDITY OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Validity refers to the strength and the accuracy of a
research design. Two types of validity in a research design viz.



Validity
External
Validity
Internal
Validity
Internal Validity

Internal validity describes the ability of the research
design to unambiguously (clearly) test the research
hypothesis. Internal validity refers to the extent to which
one can accurately state that the independent variable is
responsible for the observed effect in the dependent
variable and no other variable is responsible for the effect.

If the effect on dependent variable is only due to
variation in the independent variable, then we may
conclude that the internal validity is achieved.

Threats of internal validity
History
Maturation
Testing
Selection of
respondents
Statisitical
Regression
Experimental
Mortality
Instrument
change
History

History refers to the events that are beyond the
control of the experiment.

These events may change the attitude of the
respondents irrespective of whether the independent
variable is changed or not.

Thus it is impossible to determine whether any
change on the dependent variable is due to the
independent variable or the historical event.

Maturation

History refers to the events that are beyond the
control of the experiment.

These events may change the attitude of the
respondents irrespective of whether the independent
variable is changed or not.

Thus it is impossible to determine whether any
change on the dependent variable is due to the
independent variable or the historical event.

Testing

Repeatedly measuring the participants may lead to
bias. Participants may remember the correct answers or
may be conditioned to know that they are being tested.

Selection of respondents
The inappropriate selection of respondents may
lead to bias in experiemental design. If the selected
respondents are not uniform, inadvertent randomization
may take place leading to bias.
Statistical regression
The statistical regression refers to the bias that may
crop in due to some respondents giving extreme responses.
This bias is known as error sum of squares in statistical
regression analysis.

Experimental Mortality

This can occur when the respondents drop out
during the experiment especially in the experiment
involving pre test and post test. The same respondents
who take up the pre-test may not be available for the post-
test. This results in excluding the entire pre test data
from the analysis dropped out respondents.

Instrument change (instrumentality)

The instrument used during the testing process can
change the experiment. This also refers to observers being
more concentrated or primed, or having unconsciously
changed the criteria they use to make judgments.
EXTERNAL VALIDITY

External validity is related to generalisability of the
findings/results. It refers to the degree of generalisability of
the conclusions to other situations.

In other words, external validity is the degree to
which the conclusions in the study for a given population
could be made applicable to other populations or other
situations.
Meaning
A business research study, involves study of
characteristics of an individual/item/unit entity
etc. These characteristics are represented by
variables.

As the name suggests a variable changes values
for different individual/item at the same time
Example: Income of individuals for the year 2009-
10, prices of stocks on a day) or for the same
individual/item at different time (income for an
individual, sales of a company).
VARIABLES IN RESEARCH
Independent variable

Dependent variable

Moderating variable

Intervening variable

Extraneous variable

Continuous variable

Non-continuous/Discrete variable
TYPES OF VARIABLES

The process of assigning numbers to objects or
observations, the level of measurement being a function of
the rules under which the numbers are assigned.

It is easy to assign numbers in respect of properties
of some objects, but it is relatively difficult in respect of
others. For instance, measuring such things as social
conformity, intelligence, or marital adjustment is much less
obvious and requires much closer attention than measuring
physical weight, biological age or a persons financial assets.
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUES
In other words, properties like weight, height, etc.,
can be measured directly with some standard unit
of measurement, but it is not that easy to measure
properties like motivation to succeed, ability to
stand stress and the like.
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUES
Measurement Scales
Measurement
Scales
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
A qualitative scale without order is called
nominal scale.

Nominal scale is the least powerful level of
measurement.

It indicates no order or distance relationship
and has no arithmetic origin.

A nominal scale simply describes differences
between things by assigning them to categories.

Nominal data are, thus, counted data.
Nominal scale
In research activities a YES/NO scale is nominal.

It has no order and there is no distance between
YES and NO.

The statistics which can be used with nominal
scales are in the non-parametric group.

Mode
Cross tabulation - with chi-square

Nominal scale
Example: The terms we use for colours. The colour of bike is a nominal
measure. Which colour will you prefer for a bike? could be blue, black,
red, etc. One may number these colours as 1, 2, 3 etc in any sequence i.e.
this scale neither has any specific order nor it has any value.

Ordinal Scale

With ordinal scales, it is the order of the values
is whats important and significant, but the differences
between each one is not really known.

Like in a competition. A qualitative scale with order
is called an ordinal scale. This scale posses the properties
of distinctive classification and order.

Ordinal Scale

Rank as a measure is always considered as ordinal.

The difference between any two ranks is not necessarily
equal. The difference between first and second rank does
not connote the same differential.

For example in a class of students, the highest mark is 95,
next highest is 85 and the next is 84, converting marks
into ranks will lead to 1, 2 and 3.

Incidentally, it may be noted that the difference in the
performance of the 1
st
ranker and 2
nd
ranker is not the
same as the 2
nd
ranker and 3
rd
ranker.
Statistics tool applied in Ordinal scale

Ordinal data would use non-parametric statistics.
These would include:

Median and mode

Rank order correlation

Non-parametric analysis of variance

Modelling techniques can also be used with ordinal
data.
Interval Scale

Interval scales are numeric scales in which we
know not only the order, but also the exact differences
between the values.

The classic example of an interval scale
is Celsius temperature because the difference between
each value is the same. For example, the difference
between 60 and 50 degrees is a measurable 10
degrees, as is the difference between 80 and 70
degrees. Time is another good example of an interval
scale in which the increments are known, consistent,
and measurable.
Central tendency can be measured by mode,
median, or mean; standard deviation can also be
calculated.

This is a quantitative scale of measure without a fixed
or true zero. For example, there is no such thing as no
temperature.

Without a true zero, it is impossible to compute
ratios. With interval data, we can add and subtract, but
cannot multiply or divide. Confused? Ok, consider this:
10 degrees + 10 degrees = 20 degrees. No problem
there. 20 degrees is not twice as hot as 10 degrees,
however, because there is no such thing as no
temperature when it comes to the Celsius scale.

When you are asked to rate your satisfaction
with a piece of software on a 5 point scale, from
Dissatisfied to Satisfied, you are using an interval
scale.

Statistical tools
Interval scale data would use parametric statistical techniques:

Mean and standard deviation
Correlation r
Regression
Analysis of variance
Factor analysis
Advanced multivariate and modelling techniques.
Ratio scales
Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of
measurement. We can conceive of an absolute zero of length
and absolute zero of time.

Ratio scales represents the actual amount of variables.
Measures of physical dimensions such as height, weight,
distance etc are examples.

All statistical techniques are usable with ratio scales.

Multiplication and division can be used with this scale
but not with other scales.

Geometric and Harmonic means can be used as measure
of central tendency and coefficients of variation also be
calculated.

Scaling

Scaling has been defined as a procedure for the
assignment of numbers (or other symbols) to a property of
objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of
numbers to the properties in question.

The number assigning procedures or the scaling
procedures may be broadly classified on one or more of the
following bases:
(a) Subject orientation;
(b) Response form;
(c) Degree of subjectivity;
(d) Scale properties;
(e) Number of dimensions and
(f ) Scale construction techniques.

Selection or construction of a measurement scale
requires decision in the following six key areas:

Study objective

Response form

Degree of preference

Data properties

Number of Dimensions

Scale construction

CONSTRUCTION OF
MEASUREMENT SCALES
Construction
of
measuremen
t scales
Arbitrary
scaling
Consensus
Scaling
Item
Analysis
scaling
Cumulative
scales
Factor
scales
Arbitrary scales are developed on ad hoc
(unplanned) basis. It is largely based on researchers own
subjective selection of items. Several items, which are
appropriate and unambiguous to the theme of study, may
be selected.

Each item is scored from 1 to 5 depending on the
responses obtained. The results are then totaled.

Arbitrary scales are easy to develop, inexpensive and
highly specific to the theme of the study.

The major limitation is that the design approach is
subjective.
Arbitrary scales
In consensus scale the items are selected by a
panel of judges after evaluation on the basis of
some criteria like

Relevance to the topic area

The risk of ambiguity and

The level of attitude represented by the
items.
Consensus Scaling
This scale is rarely used for measuring
Organizational concepts - because of time.

One of Consensus scale is The Thurstone
Equal Appearing Interval Scale by using a pile of
card
Consensus Scaling
This approach is widely known as Thurston equal
appearing Interval Scale. The procedure followed in
construction of the scale is described below

Step: 1 A large number of items/statements expressing
different degree of favorableness towards an object
relating to the subject of the study, usually more than
twenty are collected by the researcher.

Step: 2 A panel of judges evaluates the statements. The
statements are written in the card.

Step: 3 The judges sort each card into one of the 11 piles
representing the degree of favorableness the statement
expresses.

Step: 4 The sorting yields a composite position
for each of the items. In case of disagreement
between the judges the item is discarded.

Step: 5 For the items that are retained median
scale value between one and eleven is assigned.

Step: 6 A final selection of statements is made
on the basis of the median score. Of the 11 piles 3
are identified by the judges as favourable ,
unfavourable and neutral. The eight
intermediate piles are unlabelled.
The itemized rating scale is a 5 point or 7 point
scale with anchors provided for each item and the
respondent states the appropriate number on the side of
each item or circles the relevant number against each
item. The responses to the items are then
summated. This uses an interval scale.

Example is shown below; indicate your response number
on the line for each item.

1 2 3 4 5
Very Unlikely Unlikely Neither Unlikely Likely Very Likely
nor likely
Item Analysis scaling
I like to take more responsibility -----

If additional responsibility is not provided I will be dissatisfied -----

I am interested in a job which provides me more salary -----



Step :1 Discriminates between those persons whose score
is high and those whose total score is low.

Step :2 It involves calculating the mean score for each
scale item among the low scorers and high scorers. The
item means between the high-score group and the low-
score group are then tested for significance by
calculating t values.

Step :3 Finally the items that have the greatest t values
are selected for inclusion in the final scales.
Item Analysis scaling
Summated scales consist of a number of statements
which express either favourable or unfavourable attitude
towards an object to which the respondents is required to
react.

The respondents indicate the agreement or
disagreement with each of the statement.

Each response is given a numerical score and the total
is obtained to measure the respondents attitude.
Summated scales or Likert scales are developed by the
item analysis approach.
Procedure for developing a Likert type scale

1. A large number of statements relevant to the object
being studied is collected.

2. The statement expresses definite favourableness or
unfavourableness towards the subject.

3. A trial test can be conducted with a small group of
respondents who form part of the final study. The
agreement or disagreement towards each statement is
obtained on a five-point scale.

4. The response is scored in such a way that the response
indicating the most favorable attitude is given the
highest score of 5 and the most unfavorable attitude is
given the lowest score 1.

5. The total score of each respondent is obtained by adding
the score for each individual statement.

6. The next step is to array the total scores and find out
those statements, which have a high discriminatory power.
For this purpose the researcher may select some part of the
highest and the lowest total scores, for eg, top 25 percent
and bottom 25 percent.

7. These two extreme groups are interpreted to represent
the most favourable and the least favourable attitudes and
are used as criterion groups by which to evaluate
individual statements.

Thus the statements, which consistently correlate with low
favourability and with high favorability, are identified.

Advantages of Likert scale

1. It is relatively easy to construct, considered to be more
reliable and less time consuming.

Disadvantages of Likert scale

1. One of the major limitations is that the scale simply
examine whether respondents are more or less
favourable towards the subject under study, but it cannot
reveal how much more or less they are.

2. There is no basis for belief that the five positions
indicated on the scale are equally spaced.



Cumulative scales consist of series of statements to
which a respondent expresses his agreement or
disagreement.

An individual whose attitude is at a certain point in a
cumulative scale will answer favourably all the items on one
side of this point and answer unfavourably all the items on
the other side of this point.

The individuals score is arrived at by counting the number
of points concerning the number of statements answered
favourably.

Cumulative scales

If the total score is known it is easy to estimate the
respondent does answer to individual statements
constitute the cumulative scales.

A major scale of this type is the Guttmans scalogram.

Scalogram analysis refers to the procedure for
determining whether a set of items forms a one-dimensional
scale.

A scale is one dimensional if the responses fall into a pattern
in which endorsement of the item reflecting the extreme
position results also in endorsing all items, which are less
extreme.

Factor scales includes a variety of techniques that been
developed to address two issues viz, the problem of
dealing with the universe of content that is multi
dimensional and the problem of uncovering the
underlying dimensions that has not been identified by
the exploratory research.

Factor scales are developed through factor analysis or on
the basis of inter correlations of items, which indicate the
common factor responsible for the relationships between
items.


Factor scales
1. Semantic Differential Scale

2. Multidimensional scaling (MDS)

Different types of factor analysis
Semantic Differential Scale



Developed by Charles E.Osgood, G.J. Suchi and P.H.
Tannenbaum (1957),

It is an attempt to measure the psychological meanings
of an object to an individual.

This scale is based on the presumption that an object
can have different dimensions of connotative meanings
which can be located in multidimensional space.

This scaling consists of a set of bipolar rating scales,
usually of 7 points, by which one or more respondents rate
one or more concepts on each scale item.


3
2 1
0
-3 -2 -1
(E) Successful Un Successful
(P) Severe Lenient
(P) Heavy
(A) Hot
(E) Progressive
(P) Strong
(A) Active
Light
Cold
Regressive
Weak
Passive
For instances, the S.D scale items for analyzing candidates for leadership position
May be shown as under:
Candidates for leadership position may be compared and score
them from -3 to +3 on the basis of the above stated scales. The
letters E,P, A stands for

E Evaluation
P Potency
A Activity

Written along the left side are not written in actual scale. The
numeric values shown are also not written in actual scale.

Osgood and others conclude that Semantic space is
multidimensional rather than unidimensional.
The semantic differential has several advantages.

It produces interval data. It is an efficient and easy way
to elicit responses from a large sample.

The attitudes can be measured both in terms of
direction and intensity.

The total set of responses provides a comprehensive
picture of the meaning of an object.

It is a standardized technique which can be easily
repeated and at the same time escapes many problems of
response distortion.
Multidimensional scaling

Multidimensional scaling is relatively more complicated
scaling device which can be used to scale objects,
individuals or both with a minimum of information.

It enables to provide visual impression of the
relationship between variables.

The MDS enables the researcher to study the
perceptual structure of a set of stimuli and the
cognitive process underlying the development of this
structure.

It enables perceptual mapping in a multidimensional
space.
Multidimensional scaling

For example if respondents are asked to identify similar
products among a group of products and if product X and
Y are similar, MDS technique will position X and Y in such
a way that the distance between them in
multidimensional space is shorter than that between any
two other objects.

However MDS is not widely used because of the
computational complications involved.


VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT
OR
TESTS OF SOUND MEASUREMENT

1. Test of Validity

Content validity;
Criterion-related validity and
Construct validity.

2. Test of Reliability


3. Test of Practicality