Have you ever wonder how signals travel in a telephone line?

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 MODULE 14

PULSE CODE MODULATION

Prepared by:
Engr. Jo-Ann C. Viñas
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OBJECTIVES:

1. Discuss the concept of digital transmission

2. Review the Pulse Modulation Theory and the parameters of
PCM
3. Discuss the process of producing PCM
4. Apply sampling theorem and quantization to the PCM process

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DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

– is the transmission of digital signals between the transmitter

and receivers and requires physical transmission medium such
as cable, fiber optic , etc.

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DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

Transmission Medium
Digital Digital
Information Information
Transmitter Receiver
Wire, cable,
fiber optic, etc

DAC
ADC

ADC – Analog to Digital Converter

Analog DAC – Digital to Analog Converter Analog
Information Information
DIGITAL TRANSMISSION ADVANTAGES

1. Noise immunity
2. Better suited to processing and multiplexing
3. Uses signal regeneration than signal amplification
4. Simpler to measure and evaluate

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DIGITAL TRANSMISSION DISADVANTAGES

1. Requires more bandwidth

2. Need for additional encoding and decoding circuitry
3. Requires precise time synchronization between transmitter
and receiver
4. Incompatible with existing analog facilities

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PULSE MODULATION

- The process sampling an analog information signals and then converting

those samples into discrete pulses and transporting the pulses from a
source to a destination over a physical medium.
PULSE MODULATION

- The process of using some characteristic of a pulse (amplitude, width,

position) to carry an analog signal.
1. PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

- Amplitude of the modulating signal changes the amplitude of the

pulses (information)

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STEP 1: PAM PROCESS

Signals to be Mixed

pulse train modulating signal

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STEP 2: PAM PROCESS

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

pulse AM signal modulating signal

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2. PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

- A process where the pulse width of a fixed amplitude pulse varies

proportionally to the amplitude of the analog signal.
FIGURE 2: PWM SIGNAL

time
3. PULSE POSITION MODULATION

- A form of pulse modulation where the position of a constant

width pulse within a prescribed timeslot is varied according to
the amplitude of the modulating signal

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FIGURE 3: PPM SIGNAL
4. PULSE CODE MODULATION

- The process of transmitting analog information in digital form,

which involves sampling the analog signal and converting the
sampled to a digital number

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PULSE MODULATION

WHERE:
• Analog Signal
• Sample Pulse
• PWM
• PPM 18
• PAM
• PCM
SIMPLEX PCM TRANSMISSION

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PCM TRANSMIT BLOCKS

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PCM DECODER
STEPS TO PRODUCE PCM

1. Sampling
2. Quantizing
3. Encoding

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BANDLIMITING

- The anti-alias or bandpass filter limits the frequency of the input

analog signal to the standard voice frequency band of 0 to 4
kHz.

PURPOSE: is to eliminate any unwanted signal that will result to

aliasing or fold over distortion at the receiver.

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1. SAMPLING

- The act of periodically holding a value (sample) of the

continually changing analog input signals.

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TYPES OF SAMPLING

1. Natural Sampling (Gating)

2. Flat-Top Sampling

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A. NATURAL SAMPLING (Gating)

The natural sampling method retains the natural shape of

the sample analog waveform

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FIGURE 4: NATURAL SAMPLING

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B. FLAT-TOP SAMPLING

The most common method used for sampling voice

signals in PCM where the sample-and-hold circuit convert
those samples to a series of constant-amplitude PAM
levels.

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FIGURE 5: FLAT-TOP SAMPLING

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FIGURE 6: SAMPLE AND HOLD CIRCUIT

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FIGURE 7: INPUT AND OUTPUT WAVEFORMS OF
SAMPLE AND HOLD CIRCUIT

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EXAMPLE

For the sample and hold circuit, determine the largest value
capacitor that can be used. Use an output impedance for Z1 of 10
Ω , an on resistance for Q1 of 10 Ω , an acquisition time of 10
µ sec, a maximum peak to peak input voltage of 10V, a maximum
output current from Z1 of 10mA, and an accuracy of 1%.

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NYQUIST SAMPLING THEOREM

- States that for a sample to be reproduced accurately at the receiver,

the sampling frequency must be at least twice of the highest
modulating signal.

fs ≥ 2 f m

where:
fm= highest modulating signal
fs = sampling frequency

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FIGURE 8: OUTPUT SPECTRUM OF SAMPLE
AND HOLD CIRCUIT

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3-BIT PCM CODE

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SIGN MAGNITUDE CODES

The codes currently used for PCM, where MSB is the sign bit and
the remaining bits are used for magnitude

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FOLDED BINARY CODE

- The codes on the bottom half of the table are a mirror image of
the codes in the top half, except for the sign bit.

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3-BIT PCM CODE

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QUANTIZATION INTERVAL

- the magnitude difference between steps

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FIGURE 9

where:
a. Analog input signal c. PAM
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b. Sample pulse d. PCM
FIGURE 10

where:
a. Analog input signal c. PAM signal 42
b. Sample pulse
EXAMPLE

For a sample rate of 20 kHz, determine the maximum analog input

frequency.

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EXAMPLE

Determine the alias frequency for a 14 kHz sample rate and an

analog input frequency of 8 kHz.

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2. QUANTIZATION

- The process of assigning discrete level to time-varying quantity

in multiples of some fixed unit, at a specified instant or specified
repetition rate.

- Is the process of approximating sample levels into their closest

fixed value

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QUANTIZING BY USING SIGN AND
MAGNITUDE

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QUANTIZATION ERROR/NOISE

- The quantized levels are those fixed levels that are the nearest
to f(s) at the point the sample is taken.

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QUANTIZATION ERROR

Vmin
Qe =
2

Resolution
Qe =
2

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LINEAR INPUT VS.OUTPUT TRANSFER

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RESOLUTION

- The magnitude of a quantum.

- It is equal to the voltage of the least significant bit(Vlsb ) of the
PCM code.

Vmax
Resolution =
2n

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DYNAMIC RANGE

- The ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest

possible magnitude (other than 0V) that can be decoded by the
digital-to-analog converter in the receiver.

DR = Vmax / Vmin

DR = 2n -1

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EXAMPLE

Determine the Dynamic range for a 10-bit sign-magnitude PCM

code.

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EXAMPLE

For a resolution of 0.04V, determine the voltages for the following

linear seven-bit sign magnitude PCM codes:

a) 0110101
b) 0000011
c) 1000001
d) 0111111
e) 1000000

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EXAMPLE

For the following resolutions, determine the range of the eight-bit-

sign-magnitude PCM codes:

Code Resolution
10111000 0.1
00111000 0.1
10011100 0.05
00011100 0.05
00110101 0.02
11100000 0.02
00000111 0.02
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EXAMPLE

Determine the minimum number of bits required for PCM codes

with the following dynamic ranges and determine the coding
efficiencies:

a. DR = 24 dB
b. DR = 48 dB
c. DR = 72 dB

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CODING EFFICIENCY

- A numerical indication of how efficiently a PCM code is utilized.

- The ratio of the minimum number of bits required to achieve a

certain dynamic range to the actual number of PCM bits used.

Where
β min β min = min # of bits (including the sign bit)
η = X 100 % β max = actual # of bits (including the sign
β max bit)
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EXAMPLE

Determine the number of bits required ina PCM code for a

dynamic range of 80 dB. What is the coding efficiency?

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3. ENCODING

- The process of converting the quantized discrete-signal (PAM

samples) to parallel PCM codes.

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FROM ANALOG SIGNAL TO PCM DIGITAL
CODE

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SIGNAL-TO-QUANTIZATION NOISE

SQR(dB) = 10 log V 2
/R
(q2/12)/R

Where:
R = resistance
V = rms voltage
q = quantization interval

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EXAMPLE

Determine SQR for a 2Vrms signal and a quantization interval of

0.2V.

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EXAMPLE

Determine the SQR for the following input signal and quantization
noise magnitudes:

Vs Vn(V)
1 Vrms 0.01
2 Vrms 0.02
3 Vrms 0.01
4 Vrms 0.2

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LINEAR PCM CODES

- the magnitude change between any two successive steps is

uniform

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FIGURE 11: LINEAR PCM CODES

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NON LINEAR PCM CODES

- the step size increases with the amplitude of the input signal

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FIGURE 12: NONLINEAR PCM CODES

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LINEAR VERSUS NON LINEAR PCM CODES

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MIDTREAD QUANTIZATION

- the first quantization interval is made larger in amplitude than

the rest of the steps.

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MIDRISE QUANTIZATION

- the lowest-magnitude positive and negative have the same

voltage range as all the other codes

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IDLE CHANNEL NOISE

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MASTERY EXERCISE

1. What are the different types of pulse modulation?

2. What is the significance of the Nyquist Sampling rate?
3. What type of modulation is effectively used by sampling method?
4. Describe the difference between natural and flat-top sampling.
5. Why is the used of a sample-and-hold circuit desirable?
6. Define the process of quantization.
7. What is quantization noise?

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MASTERY EXERCISE

8. What are the functional sections of a PCM modulator?

9. What PCM functions does an analog-to-digital converter
perform?
10. Why is a sample-and-hold circuit required in the PCM
decoder?

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SEATWORK

1. Determine the Nyquist sampling rate for the following maximum

analog input frequencies:

a) 2kHz
b) 5kHz
c) 12kHz
d) 20kHz

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SEATWORK

2. Determine the alias frequency for the following Nyquist sample

rate:

fa(kHz) fs(kHz)

3 4
5 8
6 8
5 7

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SEATWORK

3. For the sample and hold circuit, determine the largest value of
the capacitor that can be used for the following parameters: Z1
output impedance = 15ohms, an on resistance of Q1 of 15
ohms, an acquisition time of 12 microseconds, a maximum
output current from Z1 of 10mA, an accuracy of 0.1%, and a
maximum change in voltage in dv = 10V.

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SIMPLEX PCM TRANSMISSION

SAMPLE
SAMPLE ANALOG-TO-
ANALOG-TO- PARALLEL-TO-
PARALLEL-TO-
BANDPASS
BANDPASS AND
AND DIGITAL
DIGITAL SERIAL
SERIAL
FILTER
FILTER HOLDCIRCUIT
HOLD CIRCUIT CONVERTER
CONVERTER CONVERTER
CONVERTER
ANALOG
INPUT
SIGNAL
SAMPLE CONVERSION LINE SPEED
PULSE CLOCK CLOCK

SERIAL SERIAL
PCM CODE REGENERATIVE
REGENERATIVE REGENERATIVE
REGENERATIVE PCM CODE
REPEATER
REPEATER REPEATER
REPEATER

PARALLEL
DATA

SERIAL-TO-
SERIAL-TO- DIGITAL-TO-
DIGITAL-TO- LOWPASS
LOWPASS
PARALLEL
PARALLEL ANALOG
ANALOG HOLDCIRCUIT
HOLD CIRCUIT
FILTER
FILTER
CONVERTER
CONVERTER CONVERTER
CONVERTER ANALOG
OUTPUT
SIGNAL
LINE SPEED CONVERSION
CLOCK CLOCK
FIGURE 8: OUTPUT SPECTRUM OF SAMPLE
AND HOLD CIRCUIT
2fs - fa
fs - fa fs + fa 3fs - fa
2fs + fa
3fs + fa
AUDIO
0 fs 2fs 3fs frequency

SHADED AREAS INDICATE

SPECTRAL FOLDOVER
fs - fa fs + fa
2fs + fa 4fs - fa

0 2fs - fa 3fs - fa 3fs + fa frequency

fs 2fs 3fs