INTRODUCTION TO

FABRICATION
TECHNOLOGY
MAILAM INDIA LIMITED,
PONDICHERRY
EVOLUTION OF WELDING

HOW ?

WHEN ?

WHERE ?
TUBAL CAIN
FORGE WELD
KJELLBERG
METAL ARC
1910
BERNADO
CARBON ARC
1885
BC
DEVELOPMENT OF WELDING
1 Forge Welding BC Tubal Cain -Middle East
2 Electric Arc 1801 Sir Humphrey Davy,UK
3 CorbonArc Welding 1881 De Meritens -French
4 CorbonArc Welding 1885 N.V.Bernardo -Russian
5 Electric Resistance 1886 Elihu Thompson -USA
6 Metal Arc Welding 1888 Slavianoff -Russian
7 Thermit Welding 1897 H. Goldschmidt -Germany
8 Oxyacetylene Welding 1906 Eugene Davis -USA
A.Bournonvile -French
9 Metal Arc Welding 1910 Oscar Kjellberg -Swede


WELDING
A METAL JOINING
METHOD
IN WHICH THE JOINING
EDGES ARE HEATED AND
FUSED TOGETHER TO
FORM A
PERMANENT BOND
( HOMOGENEOUS)
IS KNOWN AS WELDING
ADVANTAGES
HIGH STRENGTH
FREEDOM IN DESIGN
WITHSTANDS HIGH PRESSURE
MORE ECONOMY OF MATERIAL
LESS WEIGHT
DISADVANTAGES
WELDING RESULTS IN DISTORTION.
EDGE PREPARATION IS REQUIRED.
SKILLED WORKMAN IS REQUIRED.
CHANGES IN METALURGICAL PART.
HEAT TREATMENT IS REQUIRED IN
SOME CASES
APPLICATIONS OF WELDING
FABRICATION OF PRESSURE VESSELS
CONSTRUCTION OF PROJECTS
MAINTENANCE OF PROCESS PLANTS
FABRICATION OF INDUSTRIAL BOILERS
CONSTRUCTION OF PIPE LINES
ERECTION OF POWER PROJECTS
NUCLEAR AND DEFENCE PROJECTS
APPLICATIONS
AUTOMOBILE
INDUSTRY
BRIDGES &
TANKS
BUILDINGS
PIPE LINE
WORKS
SHIPS &
AIRCRAFT
PRESSURE
VESSELS
A method of welding in which
similar and dissimilar metals are
joined together by melting and
fusing their joining edges with or
without the addition of filler
metal but without the application
of any kind of pressure is known
as fusion welding.
The joint made is permanent. The
common heating sources are:
- arc welding.
- gas welding.
Fusion welding without pressure (Fig 1)
Non-fusion welding(Fig 3)

This is a method of welding in
which similar or dissimilar
metals are joined together
without melting the edges by
using a low melting point filler
rod but without the application
of pressure.

The joint made is temporary.

Heat source may be arc or gas
in fusion welding.

Examples are silver soldering,
brazing etc.
WELDING METHODS
Pressure welding
Forge
Resistance
Thermit
(Pressure welding)
Projection
Spot
Seam
Butt
Plain
Flash
Fusion welding
Arc Gas Thermit
(Fusion welding)
Metal
Carbon
Inert gas Atomic
hydrogen
Oxy-acetylene
Oxygen-other fuel gases
ELECTRON IN MOTION IS
CALLED CURRENT

CURRENT
PRINCIPLE OF ARC WELDING
WHEN HIGH CURRENT PASSES THROUGH
AN AIR GAP FROM ONE CONDUCTOR TO
ANOTHER, IT PRODUCES VERY INTENSE
AND CONCENTRATED HEAT IN THE FORM
OF A SPARK.
SPARK TEMP APPROX. 3600 DEG WHICH
CAN MELT AND FUSE THE METAL VERY
QUICKLY TO PRODUCE A WELD
Today, welding is the most commonly used method of
fabrication of structural works, pressure vessels etc. Welded
joint is the best solution for leak proof joints.
Welded joints can be classified as follows based on position.
Butt
Tee
Lap
Corner
Edge
For thin metal, say 2 mm, edge preparation not
required. For thick sections, weld edge preparation
is required to achieve full penetration welds.

For C.S / LAS materials, edge preparation is done by
gas cutting / machining

For S.S materials, edge preparation is done by plasma
cutting / machining



GROOVE WELDS

FILLET WELDS

PLUG WELDS




Groove weld







Fillet weld

Provides better joint and takes more loads
Needs edge preparation, which facilitates weld penetration.
Used in butt, tee or corner weld joints.
Careful fit-up is required for butt joints but slight
mismatch is permitted
Preferred for cyclic loads.
Strength of weld is almost same as base materials.
No significant stress concentration due to weld shape.

Joint efficiency depends on the type of weld
examination, welding procedure and type of load.

Weld reinforcement is a source of stress concentration
and potential failure under repetitive load.
Removal of weld reinforcement increases fatigue
strength of the weld.


Weld with an approximately triangular cross section
joining two surfaces at right angles.

Size is specified by leg size of its largest inscribed right
triangle.

No weld edge preparation required.

Cheaper in cost.

Stress concentration at root or toe causes failure
under variable loads.

One sided fillet weld in tee or lap joining is generally
avoided because of very low static and fatigue
strength of this weld.

Face of fillet weld may vary from convex to concave to
reduce stress concentration.

Stress induced in fillet weld is complex because of
eccentricity of applied load, weld shape and notch
effects. They consist of shear, tension and
compressive stresses.

Excessive welding may be a major factor contributing
to an increase in welding cost, residual stresses
and distortion.
Circular weld made either by arc or gas welding
through one member of lap or tee joint.

Plug weld holes are completely filled in case of thin
plates and are partially filled in case of
heavier plates.(i. e. above 10mm)

Used to fix corrosion resistant lining to base metal

Used as strength weld in single lap joints or non-
pressure structural attachments.

ASME SEC.VIII DIV.1
Table-UW12 specifies joint efficiency for welded joints of
pressure vessel. Joint efficiency depends on type of weld and
degree of radiographic examination.
For butt weld joints,
Joint Efficiency
Spot radiography 0.85
Full radiography 1.0
No radiography 0.7
Allowable load on fillet weld = Weld area based on min. leg size
x 0.55 (Joint Efficiency) x Sa ( Allow. stress of material)

ASME SEC.VIII DIV.2

Full radiography for all pressure shell welds.

Strength of weld is same as strength of base
material

Welds subject to fluctuating stresses must be designed
and evaluated according to design values based on
fatigue analysis. Allowable stresses for welds under
fluctuating loads will be substantially lower than the
allowable stresses for welds subject to static load
only. They will be based on endurance strength of
material and member of cycles.


Due to geometry of welded joints, defects and
imperfections in welds, different metallurgical
structures of weld metals.

Effect of stress concentration in ductile materials can
be ignored.

Stress concentration becomes significant if weld is
hard and brittle or under shock or fluctuating
loads.

Stress concentration factors are used in design to
ensure safer welded construction.
Weld joint design primarily depends on load
requirements. Generally the following guidelines are to be
followed for better design.
Select the joint design that requires the least amount of weld
metal.
Use square-groove and partial joint penetration weld,
wherever possible.
Use lap and fillet welds instead of groove welds if fatigue is
not a design consideration.
Use double-V or U-groove instead of single-V or U-groove
welds as thick plates to reduce the amount of weld metal
and to control distortion.
For corner joints in thick plates where fillet welds are not
adequate, beveling both members should be considered
to reduce the tendency for lamellar tearing.
Design the assembly and the joints for good accessibility for
welding.


The above types mean the shape of the joint, that is, how the joining
edges of the parts are placed together. (Joint design is very important
in fabrication work, especially where cost is important).
Flat or down hand position
Basic welding positions
WELDING POSITION
Horizontal position
Vertical position
Overhead position
All welding action takes place in the molten pool, formed in the
welding joint/welding line.

The position of the welding joint line in respect of ground axis
indicates the welding position.

All joints may be welded in all positions.
BASIC WELDING JOINTS AND POSITION
(PIPES)
Pipes of all types and sizes are used a great deal today in
transporting oil, gas and water. They are also used extensively for
piping systems in buildings, refineries and industrial plants.

Advantages of welded pipe

Pipes are mostly made of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and their
alloys. They possess the following advantages.

Improved overall strength.
Ultimate saving in cost including maintenance.
Improved flow characteristics.
Reduction in weight due to its compactness.
Good appearance.
Methods of pipe welding

The following are the methods of pipe welding.

Metallic arc welding.
Gas metal arc welding
Tungsten inert gas welding
Submerged arc welding
Carbon arc welding

All these methods, except carbon arc welding are commonly
used and the choice of welding depends upon the size of the pipe
and its application.
Types of pipe joints

Butt joint
`T joint
Lap joint
Angle joint
Composite joint
Y joint (Fig 2)
Elbow joint (Fig 3)
(Fig
1)
(Fig 2)
(Fig 3)
Welding of pipe butt joints

Normally joints in pipes and tubes cannot be welded from
the inside of the bore. Hence before starting to learn pipe
welding, a person should be proficient in welding in all
positions, i.e. flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead.

All these positions are used to weld pipes.

Pipe welding positions (Figs 4 and 5)
(Figs 4 and 5)
1 G Pipe weld in flat (roll)
2 G Pipe weld in horizontal
5 G Pipe weld in flat (fixed)
6 G Pipe weld in inclind (fixed)

During the welding of butt joints the pipe may be

Rolled or rotated (1 G position)
Fixed (5G position)

Rolled position (1 G)
In the rolled position welding is done the same way as is done in
flat position.

Fixed position (5 G) (Fig 6)
Weld symbol convey design requirements to the
shop in a concise manner. Welding symbol include the
following.
Reference line
Arrow
Basic weld symbol
Dimensions and other data
Supplementary symbols
Finish symbols
Specification, process or other reference

REPRESENTATION OF WELDS
TYPES OF ARC WELDING
Shielded
Metal
Arc Welding
SMAW
Tungsten
Inert
Gas Welding
TIG
Metal Inert/
Active Gas
Welding
MIG / MAG/FCAW
Submerged
Arc
Welding
SAW
Electro
Slag
Welding
ESW
Plasma
Arc
Welding
PAW
Home
SMAW
SHIELDED METAL ARC
WELDING

SMAW IS A PROCESS IN
WHICH HEAT
GENERATED BY THE
ELECTRIC ARC IS
UTILISED FOR FUSING
THE METALS TO BE
WELDED

When an arc is struck between the metal rod
(electrode) and the workpiece, both the rod
and workpiece surface melt to form a weld
pool.
Simultaneous melting of the flux coating on
the rod will form gas and slag which
protects the weld pool from the surrounding
atmosphere.
The slag will solidify and cool and must be
chipped off .

SHIELDED METAL ARC
WELDING
FUNCTION OF FLUX MATERIALS
Deoxidation of Scavengers- Helps to Purify
The Weld Metal
Slag Formers -Slag Protects Weld Puddle
From Atmosphere During Solidification
Arc Stabilisers - Produce a Smooth Arc &
Help Reduce Spatter & Smoke
Alloying Elements - Provide the Necessary
mechanical Properties
Gasifier - Provide a Shielding Gas
SMAW
Advantages
Variety of electrodes with different features
Most versatile in use all position joints /joints
with limited access
Suitable for most alloys
Equipment simple,inexpensive & portable.
Disadvantages
Finite length
High dependence on welder skill
Not amenable for automation

Arc stability, depth of penetration, metal
deposition rate and positional capability are
greatly influenced by the chemical
composition of the flux coating on the
electrode. Electrodes can be divided into
three main groups:
Cellulosic
Rutile
Basic

Types of flux/electrodes
Rutile electrodes
Rutile electrodes contain a high
proportion of titanium oxide (rutile) in the
coating. Titanium oxide promotes easy arc
ignition, smooth arc operation and low
spatter.
These electrodes are general purpose
electrodes with good welding properties.
They can be used with AC and DC power
sources and in all positions
Rutile electrodes
Features:
Moderate weld metal mechanical
properties
Good bead profile produced through the
viscous slag
Positional welding possible with a fluid
slag (containing fluoride)
Easily removable slag
Basic electrodes
Basic electrodes contain a high proportion
of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium
fluoride (fluorspar) in the coating.
This makes their slag coating more fluid than
rutile coatings - this is also fast-freezing which
assists welding in the vertical and overhead
position.
These electrodes are used for welding
medium and heavy section fabrications where
higher weld quality, good mechanical
properties and resistance to cracking (due to
high restraint) are required
Features:
Low hydrogen in weld metal
Requires high welding currents/speeds
Convex and coarse bead profile
Slag removal difficult
Basic electrodes
Power source
Electrodes can be operated with AC
and DC power supplies. Not all DC
electrodes can be operated on AC
power sources, however AC
electrodes are normally used on DC
Welding current
Welding current level is determined by the
size of electrode - the normal operating range
and current are recommended by
manufacturers.
Typical operating ranges for a selection of
electrode sizes are illustrated in the table.
As a rule of thumb , an electrode will require
about 40A per millimeter (diameter).
Therefore, the preferred current level for a
4mm diameter electrode would be 160A, but
the acceptable operating range is 140 to
180A
Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding became an
overnight success in the 1940s for joining
magnesium and aluminium.
Using an inert gas shield instead of a slag to
protect the weld pool, the process was a
highly attractive replacement for gas and
manual metal are welding.
TIG has played a major role in the
acceptance of aluminium for high quality
welding and structural applications using AC
power source.
TIG WELDING
TIG WELDING
Process characteristics
Arc is formed between a pointed tungsten
electrode and the workpiece in an inert
atmosphere of argon or helium
The small intense arc provided by the
pointed electrode is ideal for high quality
and precision welding
Process characteristics
Because the electrode is not consumed
during welding, the welder does not have
to balance the heat input from the arc as
no metal is deposited from the melting
electrode
When filler metal is required, it must be
added separately to the weldpool.

Power source
TIG must be operated with a drooping /
constant current power source - either DC or
AC
A constant current power source is essential
to avoid excessively high currents being
drawn when the electrode is short-circuited
on to the work-piece surface. This could
happen either deliberately during arc
starting or inadvertently during welding
Electrodes DC Welding
It is important to select the correct
electrode diameter and tip angle for
the level of welding current. As a rule,
the lower the current the smaller the
electrode diameter and tip angle
MIG
Metal inert gas (MIG) welding was first
patented in the USA in 1949 for welding
aluminium.
The arc and weld pool formed using a
bare wire electrode was protected by
helium gas, readily available at that time
MIG WELDING
From about 1952 the process became
popular in the UK for welding aluminium
using argon as the shielding gas, and for
carbon steels using CO
2
.
CO
2
and argon-CO
2
mixtures are known as
metal active gas (MAG) processes.
MIG is an attractive alternative to MMA,
offering high deposition rates and high
productivity.

MIG WELDING
Heat for welding is produced by forming
an arc between a metal electrode and the
workpiece, the electrode melts to form the
weld bead.

The main difference is that the metal
electrode is a small diameter wire fed from
a spool. As the wire is continuously fed,
the process is often referred to as semi-
automatic welding.
Process characteristics

Synergic pulsed MIG refers to a special
type of controller which enables the
power source to be tuned (pulse
parameters) for the wire composition
and diameter, and the pulse frequency
to be set according to the wire feed
speed.

Pulsed
In addition to general shielding of the
arc and the weld pool, the shielding
gas performs a number of important
functions
Forms the arc plasma
Stabilises the arc on the material surface
Ensures smooth transfer of molten droplets
from the wire to the weld pool

Shielding gas
General purpose shielding gases for MIG
welding are mixtures of argon, oxygen and
C02, and special gas mixtures may contain
helium.
The gases which are normally used for the various
materials are:
steels
CO
2

argon +2 to 5% oxygen
argon +5 to 25% CO
2

non-ferrous
argon
argon / helium

Shielding gas
MIG is widely used in most industry sectors
and accounts for almost 50% of all weld metal
deposited.
Compared to MMA, MIG has the advantage
in terms of flexibility, deposition rates and
suitability for mechanization
However, it should be noted that while MIG is
ideal for high deposition rates, a high degree
of manipulative skill is demanded of the
welder.

Applications
GAS METAL ARC WELDING
GMAW/MIG-MAG/CO2/SOLID WIRE
Advantages
Continuous electrode
Higher currents possible
Minimal post weld cleaning required
Highly amenable to automation
Disadvantages
Equipment more complex & Costlier than
SMAW
Welder skill dependence still high,especially
for out-of position welding
Not amenable for customisation
FLUX CORED ARC
WELDING
FLUX CORED WIRE- FCAW
FCAW Consumable is Often known as Inside
Out as flux is inside & metal is outside .
Modern Technology of Manufacture of FCAW
wire involves Strip & Dry Premixed Flux as Basic
Raw Materials
The Quantum of Flux Addition & Flux Fill Ratio
are Continuously Monitored to deliver Consistent
Quality Products.
FUNCTION OF FLUX MATERIALS
Deoxidation of Scavengers- Helps to Purify
The Weld Metal
Slag Formers -Slag Protects Weld Puddle
From Atmosphere During Solidification
Arc Stabilisers - Produce a Smooth Arc &
Help Reduce Spatter & Smoke
Alloying Elements - Provide the Necessary
mechanical Properties
Gasifier - Provide a Shielding Gas
`TYPES OF CORED WIRES
CS/LAS SS
Gasless (Self Shielded) A 5. 20 5.22

Gas Shielded Flux Cored A 5.20 5.22

Composite Submerged Arc

Gas Shielded Metal Cored A5.18
GASLESS (SELF SHIELDED)
Generates its Own Protective Shielding Gas.
Normally used in Flat & Horizontal Positions only
.
For CS most commonly used for Out Door
Fabrication & also extensively used for Repair &
Maintenance application
For SS Mainly used for Joining & Overlay
Welding Application
GAS SHIELDED FLUX CORED WIRES
For CS/LAS Currently Available in Two Types
Positional Welding type - Rutile Slag
Flat/ Horizontal type - Basic Slag
Both Types Typically Run with Ar-25%Co2 or
100% CO2
Diameter Down to 0.9 mm Available
For SS Positional Welding Type available in
all grades suitable for CO2 Shielding
COMPOSIT SUBMERGED ARC
FCAW Consumables used mainly with Neutral Flux
to give desired Weld metal Chemistry
Typical Application include High Alloy Steel
Compositions with special TDC Required in Small
Quantity.(Tailor Made Product)
GAS SHIELDED METAL CORED
Composit or Metal Cored FCAW consumables most
commonly used for robotic application in view of
Higher Deposition Efficiency
Bead on Bead Welding (NO Slag )
Better Wire Feeding.


CLASSIFICATION OF FCAW
CONSUMABLES
For Metal Cored Wires as per AWS A 5.18
E 70 C X Y N HZ
For FCAW Wires as per AWS A 5.20
E XXT XMJ HZ
For SS FCAW Wires as per A 5.22
E XXX T X-X
` FCAW -CORED WIRE
ADVANTAGES
High productivity of Continuous Wire Welding
Metallurgical Benefit of Flux
Higher Current than Solid Wire
Versatile Use-All Positional ,Wide Thickness Range
Visible Arc -Easy to Use
DISADVANTAGES
Equipment more complex & Costlier than SMAW
FCAW Wires more Expensive on Weight Basis but
compensated by higher Productivity

SHIELDING GASES
Arc Characteristics
Penetration Profile
Mode Of Transfer
Spatter Level
Alloy Recovery
Material Types
SHIELDING GAS COMPARISON
E 81T-1-Ni1 VERTICAL UP @21 KJ/CM
95Ar/5CO2
75Ar/25CO2 50Ar/50CO2
100CO2
TYPICAL
CHEMICAL
ANALYSIS
C
Mn
Si
.059
1.29.
.44
.055
1.29
.44
.042
1.24
.39
.041
1.16
.31
TYPICAL
MECH.
PROP(Mpa)
YS
UTS
540
603
531
586
502
568
457
565
TYPICAL
IMPACT
PROP(J)
0 Deg C
-40Deg C
123
91
125
84
109
48
104
40
BEAD
SHAPE
FLAT FLAT CONVEX CONVEX
IMPORTANT
Making a Gas Decision
Deciding on a particular shielding gas should be
based on the specific manufacturers
recommendation. Failure to do so may result in
weld metal defects or in an deterioration in
Mechanical properties.The manufactures
guaranteed values are obtainable only when
specified technical parameters are followed in
full .
SAW
The first patent on the submerged-arc
welding (SAW) process was taken out in
1935 and covered an electric arc
beneath a bed of granulated flux
Developed by the E O Paton Electric
Welding Institute, Russia, during the
Second World War, SAW's most famous
application was on the T34 tank.

SAW WELDING
Similar to MIG welding, SAW involves
formation of an arc between a
continuously-fed bare wire electrode and
the workpiece
The process uses a flux to generate
protective gases and slag, and to add
alloying elements to the weld pool
Process features
A shielding gas is not required. Prior to
welding, a thin layer of flux powder is
placed on the workpiece surface
The arc moves along the joint line and as
it does so, excess flux is recycled via a
hopper.
Remaining fused slag layers can be easily
removed after welding
Process features
As the arc is completely covered by the
flux layer, heat loss is extremely low.
This produces a thermal efficiency as high
as 60% (compared with 25% for manual
metal arc)
There is no visible arc light, welding is
spatter-free and there is no need for fume
extraction
Process features


According to material thickness, joint
type and size of component, varying the
following can increase deposition rate
and improve bead shape

Process variants
SAW is normally operated with a single
wire on either AC or DC current. Common
variants are
Twin wire
Triple wire
Single wire with hot wire addition
Metal powdered flux addition

Process variants
Fluxes used in SAW are granular fusible
minerals containing oxides of
manganese, silicon, titanium, aluminium,
calcium, zirconium, magnesium and
other compounds such as calcium
fluoride
The flux is specially formulated to be
compatible with a given electrode wire
type so that the combination of flux and
wire yields desired mechanical properties
Flux
All fluxes react with the weld pool to
produce the weld metal chemical
composition and mechanical properties
It is common practice to refer to fluxes as
'active' if they add manganese,silicon
and any other alloying elements
The amount of manganese and silicon
added is influenced by the arc voltage
and the welding current level
Flux
SAW is ideally suited for longitudinal
and circumferential butt and fillet welds
However, because of high fluidity of the
weld pool, molten slag and loose flux
layer, welding is generally carried out
on butt joints in the flat position and
fillet joints in both the flat and
horizontal-vertical positions
Applications
SUBMERGED ARC
WELDING
SAW
Advantages
Highest deposition rate
Most suited for automation
Consumables can be customised
Lower operator fatigue
Disadvantages
Not versatile-no positional capability
Generally not used for thin section
Joint fit-up very critical
Arc not visible
Electro slag welding is a very efficient,
single pass process carried out in the
vertical or near vertical position and used
for joining steel plates/sections in
thicknesses of 25mm and above.
It was developed by the Paton Institute in
the Ukraine in the early 1950s and
superseded the very high current
submerged arc process for making
longitudinal welds in thick-walled
pressure vessels.

ELECTRO SLAG WELDING
Unlike other high current fusion processes,
electro slag welding is not an arc process
Heat required for melting both the welding
wire and the plate edges is generated
through a molten slag's resistance to the
passage of an electric current.


ELECTRO SLAG WELDING
ELECTRO SLAG WELDING
In its original form, plates are held vertically
approximately 30mm apart with the edges of the
plate cut normal to the surface. A bridging run-on
piece of the same thickness is attached to the
bottom of the plates. Water cooled copper shoes
are then placed each side of the joint, forming a
rectangular cavity open at the top. Filler wire,
which is also the current carrier, is then fed into
this cavity, initially striking an arc through a small
amount of flux.
Speed of joint completion; typically 1 hour per
metre of seam, irrespective of thickness
Lack of angular distortion
Lateral angular distortion limited to 3mm per
meter of weld
High quality welds produced
Simple joint preparation, i.e. flame-cut square
edge
Major repairs can be made simply by cutting out
total weld and re-welding

Benefits
Plasma welding is very similar to TIG as
the arc is formed between a pointed
tungsten electrode and the workpiece.
However, by positioning the electrode
within the body of the torch, the plasma
arc can be separated from the shielding
gas envelope. Plasma is then forced
through a fine-bore copper nozzle which
constricts the arc

PLASMA WELDING
Three operating modes can be
produced by varying bore diameter
and plasma gas flow rate:
Microplasma: 0.1 to 15A
Medium current: 15 to 200A
Keyhole plasma: over 100A
PLASMA WELDING
The microplasma arc can be operated
at very low welding currents. The
columnar arc is stable even when arc
length is varied up to 20mm
Microplasma: 0.1 to 15A
The plasma arc is normally operated with
a DC, drooping characteristic power
source. Because its unique operating
features are derived from the special
torch arrangement and separate plasma
and shielding gas flows, a plasma control
console can be added on to a
conventional TIG power source. Purpose-
built plasma systems are also available.
Power source
At higher currents, from 15 to 200A, the
process characteristics of the plasma arc
are similar to the TIG arc, but because the
plasma is constricted, the arc is stiffer.
Although the plasma gas flow rate can
be increased to improve weld pool
penetration, there is a risk of air and
shielding gas entrapment through
excessive turbulence in the gas shield.
Medium current: 15 to 200A
By increasing welding current and plasma gas
flow, a very powerful plasma beam is created
which can achieve full penetration in a material,
as in laser or electron beam welding.
During welding, the hole progressively cuts
through the metal with the molten weld pool
flowing behind to form the weld bead under
surface tension forces.
This process can be used to weld thicker
material (up to 10mm of stainless steel) in a
single pass
Keyhole plasma: over 100A
Microplasma welding
Microplasma was traditionally used for
welding thin sheets (down to 0.1 mm
thickness), and wire and mesh sections

The needle-like stiff arc minimises arc wander
and distortion. Although the equivalent TIG arc
is more diffuse, the newer transistorised (TIG)
power sources can produce a very stable arc
at low current levels
Applications
Medium current welding
When used in the melt mode this is an
alternative to conventional TIG. The
advantages are deeper penetration (from
higher plasma gas flow), and greater
tolerance to surface contamination including
coatings (the electrode is within the body of
the torch).
The major disadvantage lies in the bulkiness of
the torch, making manual welding more
difficult. In mechanised welding, greater
attention must be paid to maintenance of the
torch to ensure consistent performance.

Applications
Keyhole welding
Deep penetration and high welding
speeds.
It can penetrate plate thicknesses up to
l0mm, but when welding using a single
pass technique, it is more usual to limit
the thickness to 6mm.

Applications
WELDING
CONSUMABLES


SELECTION CRITERIA OF WELDING
CONSUMABLES
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
METALLURGICAL PROPERTIES
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
CORROSION PROPERTIES
WELDING FACILITIES
DEPOSITION RATE
POSITION OF WELDING
WELDING PROCESS
AVAILABILITY IN MARKET
TYPE OF WELDING CONSUMABLES
*FLUX COVERED STICK ELECTRODES
LIGHT COATED
MEDIUM COATED
HEAVY COATED
*BARE SOLID ROD (FILLER ROD)
*BARE SOLID WIRE (ELECTRODE / FILLER ROD)
*FLUX CORED WIRE (ELECTRODE)
*BARE SOLID STRIP (ELECTRODE)
*SHILEDING GAS (IN CYLINDERS)
*SHIELDING FLUX (GRANULAR POWDER)




IS (Indian)
AWS/ASME (American)
DIN (German)
EN (British)
National/International
Inspection/licenser
Specification

Welding consumable standards
ADVANTAGES OF FLUX COATING
TO STRIKE AND MAINTAIN ARC
TO PROVIDE A GAS SHEILD OVER
MOLTEN WELDPOOL
TO DEOXIDISE AND REFINE WELDMETAL
TO ADD ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN
WELDMETAL
TO PROVIDE A SLAG BLANKET ON
MOLTEN WELDPOOL
TO INCREASE DEPOSITION EFFICIENCY
FLUXING AGENTS
SLAG FORMERS
ARC STABILISERS
GAS FORMERS
SLIPPING AGENTS
BINDING AGENTS
DEOXIDISERS AND ALLOYING ELEMNTS
Ingredients of Flux coating
Mandatory parameters
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
NOTCH TOUGHNESS
ELCTRICAL CHARECTERISTICS
TYPE OF COVERING

OPTIONAL PARAMETERS
NOTCH TOUGHNESS REQUIREMENTS
MOISTURE CONTENT
DIFFUSIBLE HYDROGEN

SUPPLEMENTARY
PARAMETERS
HARDNESS
CORROSION RESISTANCE
FERRITE CONTENT
HOT TENSILE TEST
WEAR RESISTANCE
HOT CRACKING TEST
COLD CRACKING TEST
TEMPER EMBRITTLEMENT TEST
TYPES OF COVERING
0-HIGH CELLULOSE SODIUM
1-HIGH CELLULOSE POTASSIUM
2-HIGH TITANIA SODIUM
3-HIGH TITANIA POTASSIUM
4-IRON POWDER,TITANIA
5-LOW HYDROGEN SODIUM
6-LOW HYDROGEN POTASSIUM
7-HIGH IRON OXIDE,IRON POWDER
8-LOW HYDROGEN POTASSIUM,
IRON POWDER
9-IRON OXIDE TITANIA POTASSIUM

E.G. E 70 1 8

AWS CLASSIFICATION FOR
CARBON STEEL ELECTRODE

E-Manual Metal Arc Welding Electrode
70- Minimum UTS of 70 Ksi(70000psi)
1- Usability of electrode in all positions
8- Basic type of covering with Iron powder

AWS CLASSIFICATION OF LOW ALLOY
STEEL ELECTRODE

E-MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING ELECTRODE
80-MINIMUM UTS OF 80KSI(80000 psi)
1-USABILITY OF ELECTRODE IN ALL POSITIONS
8-BASIC TYPE OF COVERING WITH IRON
POWDER
B2-CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
1CHROME - 1/2 MOLY STEEL
E.G. E 80 1 8 B2

AWS CLASSIFICATION OF STAINLESS STEEL
ELECTRODE

E-Manual metal arc welding electrode
316-Chemical composition of 17 to 20
Chrome,11 to14 Nickel,2 to 3 Moly
L-low carbon variety
E.G. E 316 L
AWS CLASSIFICATION OF NON
FERROUS ELECTRODE
E-MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING
ELECTRODE
NICU7-CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
MONEL(70%NICKEL&BALANCE
COPPER)
E.G. E Ni Cu 7
AWS SPECIFICATION FOR
BARE RODS
A5.7-COPPER AND ALLOYS
A5.9-CHROMIUM AND CHROMIUM NICKEL STEELS
A5.10-ALUMINIUM AND ALLOYS
A5.13-SURFACING
A5.14-NICKEL AND ALLOYS
A5.15-CAST IRONS
A5.16-TITANIUM AND ALLOYS
A5.17-CARBON STEEL(SAW)
A5.18-CARBON STEEL(GTAW)
A5.23-LOW ALLOY STEEL(SAW)
A5.28-LOW ALLOY STEEL(GTAW)
SAW
F-SAW FLUX
7-MINIMUM UTS OF 70 KSI(70000psi)
P-POST WELD HEAT TREATED CONDITION
4-MINIMUM CVN IMPACT ENERGY OF 20 Ft Lb
AT MINUS 40F
EXXX-ELECTRODE WIRE
HX- HYDROGEN DESIGNATOR
E.g. F 7 P 4 EXXX HX
AWS CLASSIFICATION OF
CARBON STEEL FILLER ROD
ER-Electrode Rod
70-minimum UTS of 70 Ksi
S-solid Rod
2-minimum CVN Impact Value of 20
Ftlb at Minus 20 Deg Fahrenheit



E.g. ER 70 S 2
ER-ELECTRODE ROD
90-MINIMUM UTS OF 90KSI
S-SOLID ROD
B3-CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
2.25 CHROME-1 MOLY STEEL
L-LOW CARBON VARIETY
AWS Classification of Low Alloy Steel Filler
Rod
E.g. ER 90 S B3 L
AWS CLASSIFICATION OF
STAINLESS STEEL FILLER ROD
ER-ELECTRODE ROD
308-CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
19 TO22 CHROME,9 TO 11
NICKEL,0.75 MOLY
L-LOW CARBON VARIETY
E.g. ER 308 L
AWS CLASSIFICATION OF NON
FERROUS FILLER ROD
ER-Electrode Rod
NICR-3-chemical composition of
70%Nickel and 20%Chromium
E.g. ER NiCr - 3
FCAW CONSUMABLES AVILABILITY
WITH AWS SPECIFICATION
E70T-1 FOR
E71T-1 BOILER
E70T5 QUALITY
E81T1-W WHEATHERING
E80T1-A1 FOR
E80T1-B2 LOW ALLOY
E8-T1-B3 STEEL
E80T5-G FOR
E90T5-K2 HSLA
E100T5K3 STEELS
E110T5-K4
E308TX-X FOR SS
E316TX-X POSITIONAL
E312TX-X WELDING
E309TX-X
E308.T0-3 FOR
E309T0-3 CLADDING
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUX
CORED ELECTRODES AWS 5.20
Electrodes
Min. Tensile Strength x 10,000 psi
Position : 1 - All Position
0 - Flat & Horizontal
Usability
E X X T- XMJ HZ
Designates Spl. Impact Prop. At -40Deg C -27 J
Meeting Diffusible H2 Content 4/8/16 ml
per 100 gms as indicated by Z
-
CLASSIFICATION OF METAL CORED
WELDING AWS 5.18
Electrode
UTS X1000 psi
Indicates Composit Rod
E 70 C - X Y N HZ
Diffusible Hydrogen
Higher Impact &Lower Impurities
(N Application)
Type of Gas C / M
Impact Properties
FLUX CORED ARC WELDINGAWS A
5.22
Electrode
Alloy Composition
Alloy addition
L-Low Corbon
Tubular or Flux Cored

External Gas Shielding

E XXX XX X T - X


PERFORMANCE CHARACTERS
UNIFORM COVERING
CONCENTRICITY
GRIP END/ARC END TRIMMING
CUP FORMATION
ARC INTENSITY/STABILITY
SMOOTH ARC
FLUIDITY/VISCOSITY
SLAG/OXIDE INCLUSIONS
MOISTURE ABSORPTION
LOW SPATTER
COVERING THICKNESS
CRATER CRACKING
IDENTIFICATION
SLAG DETATCHABILITY

SPECIFIC TESTS FOR WELDING
CONSUMABLES (CS&LAS)

CARBON STEEL CONSUMABLES
WELDMETAL CHEMISTRY
CVN IMPACT VALUE AT -50DEG C
TENSILE/YIELD AFTER PWHT
HARDNESS REQUIREMENT
LOW ALLOY STEEL CONSUMABLES
WELDMETAL CHEMISTRY
DIFFUSIBLE HYDROGEN CONTENT
SPECIFIC TESTS FOR WELDING
CONSUMABLES(SS&NF)

STAINLESS STEELCONSUMABLES
FERRITE CONTENT
WELDMETAL CHEMISTRY
CORROSION RESISTANCE
CVN IMPACT VALUE AT -196 DEG C
NON FERROUS CONSUMABLES
WELDMETAL CHEMISTRY
CORROSION RESISTANCE
WELDABILITY
STORAGE AND DRYING OF
CS&LAS CONSUMABLES
CELLULOSIC TYPE-REDRYING
TEMP-70 TO 80 DEG C/HR

BASIC TYPE-REDRYING TEMP- 260
TO 420 DEG C /2HR ,HOLDING
TEMP-30 TO 140 DEG C
STORAGE&DRYING OF
SS&NF CONSUMABLES
RUTILE TYPE- REDRYING TEMP-
120TO150 DEG C /2HR
SEMI BASIC TYPE-REDRYING
TEMP-180 TO 200 DEG C/2HR
BASIC TYPE-REDRYING TEMP-200
TO 250 DEG C/2HR
WELDING DEFECTS
AND
DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING
PROPERTIE OF METALS
Physical Properties
density, thermal & electrical conductivity,
melting point, boiling point, magnetic
permeability etc.
Mechanical Properties
strength, ductility, hardness, toughness, fatigue
strength
Chemical Properties
for chemical composition of alloys

AND
Metallographic Structure
TEST TYPE VS
PROPERTIES
Tensile Test
Ultimate tensile strength
Yield strength
Ductility ( % elongation, % reduction in area)
Modulus of elasticity
Proportional limit
Hardness Test (Brinel, Vickers, Rockwell, Knoop)
Hardness of weld, HAZ & base material
UTS for some material
Toughness Test
Toughness
Ductile - Brittle transition temperature
Bend Test
Ductility
Formability
Soundness of weld


DEFECTS USUALLY
APPEARS IN THE WELDING
DESIGN RELATED

WELDING PROCESS RELATED

METALLOGRAPHIC STRECTURE
RELATED


WELDING PROCESS RELATED
DEFECTS
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
Slag inclusions
Porosity
LOF / LOP
Undercut
SUBMARGED ARC WELDING
LOP / LOP
Slag inclusions
Porosity
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING)
Porosity
Tungsten inclusions
SOUNDNESS TESTION
Bend Test
Nick-break Test
Fillet Break Test
Micro Examination
METALLOGRAPHIC TEST
Macro Examination
(Magnification below 10X)

MICRO Examination
(Magnification above 10X)

WELDING DEFECTS

ARC BLOW IN DC ARC WELDING
Cause and effects of arc blow
When the arc deviates from
its regular patch due to the
magnetic disturbances it is
called Arc blow

Whenever a current flows in
the electrode a magnetic field
is formed around the
electrode. Likewise a similar
magnetic field is also formed
around the base metal.

Due to the interaction of
these two magnetic fields, the
arc is blown to one side
forward or backward of the
joint.
Due to this the following effects occur.

More spatters with less deposition of weld metal.

Poor fusion/penetration.

Weak welds.

Difficulty in deposition welds metal at the required place in the
joint.
Methods used to control the arc blow

The arc blow can be controlled by:
- welding away from the earth connection (Fig4 )
- changing the position of the earth connection on the work
- changing the position of the work on the welding table.
- wrapping the welding cable fewer times around the work
(Fig5)
- welding towards a heavy welding tack or a weld already
made
- Keeping a magnetic bridge on the top of the groove joint
- Holding the correct electrode angle with a short arc.

Use run on and run off plates

If all the above methods fail to control the arc blow, change to
AC supply.
(Fig4 )
(Fig5)
WELDING FAULTS
The appearance of a sound weld is characterized by a
uniformly rippled surface, even contour, bead width, good
penetration and absence of external defects.

Fault

A fault is one which does not allow the finished joint to
withstand the required strength (load).

Defects in welding may be considered under two heads.

External defects
Internal defects
External defects

Undercut

A groove or channel formed in the parent metal at the toe of the
weld. (Fig 1, 2 & 3)

CAUSES

Current too high.
Welding speed too fast.
Overheating of job due to continuous welding.
Faulty electrode manipulation.
Wrong electrode angle.
REMEDIES

Ensure

proper current
correct welding speed
correct arc length
correct manipulation of
electrode

Fig 1
Fig 2
Overlap

An overlap occurs when
the molten metal from
the electrode flows over
the parent metal surface
without fusing into it.
Fig 3
CAUSES
Presence of contaminants on the job or electrode surface,
presence of high sulphur in the job or electrode materials.
Trapped moisture between joining surfaces. Fast freezing o
weld metal. Improper cleaning of the edges.

REMEDIES
Remove oil grease, rust paint, moisture, etc. from the
surface. Use fresh and dried electrodes. Use good
fluxcoated electrodes. Avoid long arcs.
CAUSES
Low current.
Slow are travel speed.
Long arc.
Tool large a diameter electrode.

REMEDIES
Correct current setting.
Correct arc travel speed.
Correct arc length.
Correct diameter electrode as per metal thickness.
Proper manipulation of electrode.

Porosity

Blow hole or gas pocket
Or
Group of pine holes on
the surface of the weld
caused by gas
entrapment.
Porosity
Porosity is the presence
of cavities in the weld
metal caused by the
freezing in of gas
released from the weld
pool as it solidifies


Porosity


Spatter
Small metal
particles which are
thrown out of the
arc during welding
along the weld.
CAUSES

Welding current too high. Wrong polarity (in DC). Use of
long arc. Arc blow. Uneven flux coated electrode.

REMEDIES
Use correct current
Use correct polarity (DC)
Use correct arc length.
Use good flux-coated electrode.
Edge of plate melted off
Edge of plate melted off in
lap and corner joints only.
(Fig)
CAUSES
Use of oversize electrode.
Use of excessive current.
Wrong manipulation of the electrode.

REMEDIES
Select correct size electrode.
Set correct current.
Ensure correct manipulation of electrode.
Deposit additional weld metal to increase throat thickness.
Crack
A hairline separation
exhibits in the root or
middle or surface of the
weld metal or parent metal.
Crack
Hydrogen Crack
Crack:
It is a discontinuity produced either by tearing of the
weld metal when it is in plastic stage and is solidifying
from the molten state and is still above 550 degree C
which is called hot crack, or by fracture when cold
when it is termed as cold crack.

Crack which is visible on the surface is called a
surface crack and a crack which can only be detected
by radiography or fracturing, say by nick break test, is
called Internal crack.

Cracks in fusion welded joints may occur either in weld
metal or in parent metal, e.g. in HAZ.
Weld metal crack can generally be classified as
longitudinal, transverse, crater and "hairline" which are
usually associated with slag inclusions.
Sometimes longitudinal crack in a weld seam may
emanate from crater cracks.
Parent metal crack usually means crack within the
blackish HAZ, which may be longitudinal, or transverse to
seam or sometimes just under the run.
Transverse crack in Parent metal may also originate
from crack in the weld metal.


CAUSES
Presence of localized stress.
Fast cooling.
Improper welding techniques.
Poor ductility,
Absence of preheating and post-heating on high carbon steels.

REMEDIES
Preheat and post-heating to be done on high carbon steels.
Cool slowly.
Use fewer passes.
Use proper welding technique.

Internal defects

Incomplete penetration
Failure of weld metal to
reach the root of the
joint .
CAUSES
Edge preparation too narrow-lesser bevel angle.
Welding speed too much.
Less current.
Use of larger dia. electrode.
Inadequate cleaning or gouging before depositing sealing run.
Wrong angle of electrode.
Insufficient root gap.

REMEDIES

Correct edge preparation is required.
Ensure correct angle of bevel and required root gap.
Use correct size of electrode.
Correct welding speed required.
Correct current setting required.
Incomplete root fusion
A - Excessively thick
root face

B - Too small a root gap

C - Misplaced welds

D - Power input too low

E - Arc (heat) input too
low
A
B
C
D
E
Incomplete root fusion
A LARGER DIAMETER
ELECTRODE

B SMALLER DIAMETER
ELECTRODE


B
C
Slag inclusion
Slag or other non-metallic
foreign materials entrapped in
a weld. (Fig)
CAUSES

Incorrect edge preparation.
Wrong size and type of electrode.
Excessive current.
Long are length.
Improper welding technique.
Inadequate cleaning of each run in multi-run welding.

REMEDIES

Use correct joint preparation.
Use correct type of electrode.
Use correct arc length.
Use correct welding technique.
Ensure thorough cleaning of each run in multi-run welding.
Slag Inclusions


Effects of faults

Thickness of base metal reduced.
Weakens the strength of weld.
Reduces the throat thickness.
Consumes more electrode.
Change in base metal properties.
Poor weld appearance.
Waste of labour and materials.
Failure of joints will lead to accidents.
WELDING
INSPECTION
AND TESTING
INSPECTION OF WELD
Necessity of inspection

The purpose of inspection is to locate and determine the type of
fault, Quality of joint and quality of workmanship.

Types of tests

Non-destructive test (NDT)
Destructive test

Determining the quality of the weld without destroying the weld
is called a non-destructive test (NDT). The job can be used after
the test.
The test to be carried out on welded specimens by destruction is
called destructive test. The job cannot be used after the test.

Visual inspection (non-destructive test)

This is one of the important inspection methods without
much expense. This method of inspection needs a
magnifying glass, a steel footrule, try square and welding
gauges. Visual inspection is made in three stages namely:

- before welding
- during welding
- after welding
Visual inspection before welding

(The operator must be familiar with the type of work,
electrode and welding machine).

The following factors are to be ensured.

The material to be welded is of weldable quality.

The edges have been properly prepared for welding as per
thickness of the plate.

Setting of root gap.

Proper procedure to be followed to control distortion.
Polarity of the electrodes in the case of DC welding
current.

Current setting according to the size of the electrode
and position of welding.

Whether any jigs and fixtures are necessary to ensure
proper alignment.

Whether any jigs and fixtures are necessary to ensure
proper alignment.

Proper facilities should exist for storing and drying of
the electrodes.
Visual inspection during welding

The following points are to be checked.
Studying the sequence of weld deposit.

Examining whether each weld is cleaned adequately before
making the next run in multi-run welding.

The following factors are to be ensured.

Shape of the bead, angle of electrode during welding,
amperage, speed of travel, arc length, correct manipulation
of the electrode and control of spatters.
Inspection after welding

Surface defects in and around the welds, such as cracks,
(longitudinal and transverse), undercut, overlap, excessive
convexity of contour, the weld surface smoothness of the run
and penetration and control of distortion are to be inspected.

Check points for inspection

Shape of profile shall be checked by measuring the
dimensions of the weld.

In butt welds the surface should be slightly convex.
In fillet welds the contour may be convex or concave.

Uniformity of (surface) height and spacing of the ripples are
an indication of the quality of workmanship.
Degree of undercut.

Smoothness of joint where
welding is recommended.

Freedom from surface
cavities and trapped slag.

Deposition of runs, single
or multiple.

Penetration bead in butt
weld.

Quality of the weld metal.
TESTING OF WELDS
Necessity of testing of welds

To obtain a dependable joint, it is necessary to inspect and
exercise adequate control before, during and after welding. The
various tests to be conducted on welded joints are determined
mainly by the service conditions to which the welded
components will be subjected to.

It is also necessary to draw samples on a scientific basis and test
them not only to control the quality of the weld, but also to
assess the skill and ability of the welder.
TYPES OF TESTING

All forms of testing can be grouped into two categories.

Non-destructive testing
Destructive testing

Non-destructive testing (NDT)

In this method the test to be carried out is done on the job
itself without destroying it and after the test, the job can
still be used.
Destructive testing

In this method the tests are carried out on welded
specimens by destruction.

The specimen will be spoiled during the test and cannot be
reused.

In general the above mechanical tests are the least
expensive and most reliable for assessing the weld quality.

Therefore, these tests are most widely carried out.
Non-destructive testing methods are classified as common testing
and special testing methods.

Common non-destructive testing

Visual inspection
Leak or pressure test
Stethoscopic test (Sound)

Special non-destructive tests

Magnetic particle test
Liquid penetrant test
Radiography (X-ray) test
Gamma ray test
Ultrasonic test
METHODS OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
Visual inspection

Visual inspection is the simplest, fastest, economical and most
commonly used test for detecting defects on the surface of the
welded job. The weld surface and joint are examined visually
with naked yes preferably with the help of a magnifying with
naked eyes preferably with the help of a magnifying lens.
Visual examination can help in detecting the following defects
on the surface of the weld.

Porosity
Surface defects
Undercut
Improper profile and dimensional accuracy
Poor weld appearance
Incomplete penetration.
Leak or pressure test
This test is used to test welded pressure vessels, tanks and
pipelines to determine if leaks are present.

The welded vessel, after closing all its outlets, is subjected to
internal pressure using water, air or kerosene.

The internal pressure depends upon the working pressure in the
welded joint.

The internal pressure may be raised to two times the working
pressure of the vessel.

The weld may be tested as follows.

1. The pressure on the gauge may be noted immediately after
applying the internal pressure and again after, say, 12 to 24 hours.
Any drop in pressure reading indicates a leak.
2. After generating air pressure in the vessel, soap solution may
be applied on the weld seam and carefully inspected for
bubbles which would indicate leak.
Stethoscopic (sound) test

The principle of this test is that defect-free weld metal gives a
good ringing sound when struck with a hammer whereas a weld
metal containing defects give a flat sound.

An ordinary physicians stethoscope and a hammer may be used
to magnify and identify the sound.

Structural welds and welds in pressure vessels have been
successfully tested using this method.
Dye is applied on cleaned test
surface

After hold time, surface is
cleaned using cleaner.

A liquid developer (white in
colour) is then sprayed on the
weld.

The coloured dye comes out
in the shape of surface defects
into the white developer
coating.

The defect can be seen in
normal light with naked eyes.


Stages of LPI
Following steps are involved in penetrant inspection :
Surface preparation
Application of the penetrant
Controlling time for penetration.
Removal of excess penetrant.
Application of developer.
Inspection
Interpretation and Evaluation
Post cleaning
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Liquid Penetrant Inspection is sufficient for locating
only surface flaws while for locating slightly
subsurface and surface flaws, magnetic particle
inspection can be used.
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) is a technique
used for testing ferromagnetic materials. The
technique is basically simple and easy to operate.
Austenitic stainless steels cannot be tested with this
technique. This can be used for detecting
discontinuities on surface or subsurface defects at a
depth of a maximum of 6 mm under favourable
conditions.
Principle
The job is suitable magnetised and magnetic lines of
force or magnetic flux of enough density is made
available.
Discontinuities in the path of the magnetic flux
create a disturbance in the uniform magnetic field
causing flux leakage.
The flux leakage set up of magnetic poles attracts
iron powder when dusted over the testing zone and
forms a pattern of the discontinuity.
The flaw is indicated as a pattern on the surface
giving the location and to some extent the nature of
discontinuity.
Magnetic particle test

This test is used to detect
surface defects as well as
sub-surface (up to 6 mm
depth) defects in ferrous
materials.


While the test piece is
magnetized, the iron
particles will gather at the
edges of the defect (crack
or flaw) and can be seen
as dark hair line marks
with naked eyes.
Ultrasonic test

Sound waves of high frequency are used in
this test. This test is used to find out the
discontinuities in the weldment. The sound
waves can penetrate even up to 6 to 10 metres
of steel.

A sound wave producing
transmitter is placed on the
job.
The echo of the sound
waves is directly shown on
the calibrated screen
attached with the ultrasonic
testing unit.

If there is any obstruction
due to the welding defect,
it will be easily found out
on the screen.

This test also can be used
to find the thickness of
metals.

Radiographic Testing
Radiography employs the penetrating capacity of
ionising radidation like X or Gamms rays to produce
a shadow of the internal condition of a job on a
recording medium. The record in a film is known as
Radiograph.
Radiographic test

This is also called X-ray or
gamma ray test.
In this test internal
photographs of the welds are
taken.
The test specimen is placed
in between the X-ray unit and
film. (Fig) Then the X-ray is
passed.
If there is any hidden
defect, that will be seen in the
film after developing it.
Defects appear in the same
manner as bone fractures of
human beings appear in X-
ray films.
Tensile Test

The tensile test gives the
values of the tensile strength
of the weld and the
percentage of elongation of
the weld.

This reveals the suitability
of a joint welded with
certain electrodes and base
metals for a particular
service condition.

DT
They are :
transverse tensile test specimen .
(Fig).
all-weld metal tensile specimen.
(Figures).
DT
DT
Guided bend test

A guided bend test is
one in which the
specimen as in Fig 1 is
bent to 180 through a
bend testing jig as in
Fig 2.
There are two types of
specimens prepared for this
one for face bend and the
other for root bend. (Fig.)
This test measures the
ductility of the weld metal
in a butt joint in a plate. This
test shows most weld faults
quite accurately and it is
very fast.
A sample specimen can be
tested on destruction to
determine (a) the physical
condition of the weld and
thus check on the weld
procedure and (b) the
welders capability.
DT
Impact test

Impact means application of
a sudden force on an object.
In an impact test of a weld, a
test specimen with (Fig) is
prepared from a test plate.

This is further machined to
have a V notch as in Fig. The
test specimen with 10 mm
square cross-section is used
for charpy V impact test and
one with 11 mm diameter
circular cross-section is used
for the izod impact test.
DT
Fig shows an impact
testing machine.

The impact test is used to
determine the impact
value of welds and base
metals in welded products
to be used at room
temprature /low
temperatures which are
subjected to severe
dynamic loading.
DT
Welding codes
A code of Construction is a set of Rules,
Regulations and Ethical practices, required to
be observed by Manufacturers either as a
statutory requirement; or as a Contractual
obligation to Statutory Authorities.
Public Sector Organizations and Engineering
Societies such as:
Indian Boiler Regulations (IBR)
Indian Railway Services (IRS)
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
American Welding Society (AWS)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
American Petroleum Institute (API)
have established Committees for the purpose of
formulating Standard Rules for the Construction of
Welded Vessels & Structures.
Primary aim of these Societies is to establish Rules of
Safety governing Design, Fabrication and Inspection
during Construction and Interpretation of the Rules and
their Intent.

ASME CODE SECTION VIII DIV 1 & ASME SEC IX

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers set up a
committee in 1911 to formulate standard rules for
construction of steam boilers and other pressure vessels.
The committee is calle the BPV Committee.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure vessle Code establishes
rules of safety governing the design, fabrication and
inspection during construction of boilers and pressure
vessels. The ASME Code is a statutory code of
construction for Boilers and pressure vessels in USA and
Canada.

The BPV Committee interprets the rules when questions
arise regarding their content. Code Cases are used to
amplify the rules.
Each manufacturer or contractor is responsible for
welding work done by his organization, and must
conduct the training and tests required to qualify in
advance the welding procedure he will be using in
construction and the performance of his welding
personnel.

Welding parameters (also called welding variables)
which affect the quality of weldment are listed in
great detail in the Section IX of the Code.
WELDING PROCEDURE AND
PERFORMANCE QUALIFICATIONS
WELDING DOCUMENTS
Welding Procedure Specification (WPS)
Procedure Qualification Record (PQR)
Welders Performance Qualification (WPQ)

APPROACHES TO PROCEDURE
QUALIFICATION
Actual Procedure Qualification Testing
Pre-qualified Procedure
Mock-up tests
PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION
TESTING

Welding Variables

Essential Variables
Supplementary essential variables
Non essential variables
ESSENTIAL VARIABLES
Base Metal P No.
Process (es)
Filler Metal A No.
PWHT
Gas
Base Metal Thickness
Weld Metal Thickness

SUPPLEMENTARY ESSENTIAL
VARIABLES
Base Metal Group No.
AWS Classification
Welding Position
Heat Input

NON ESSENTIAL VARIABLES
Electrode Length
Joint Design
BG & Method of BG
Product form

TESTS REQUIRED FOR PQR
ASME
Transverse Tensile Test (2 Nos.)
Bend Tests (4 Nos.)
Impacts ( if required) ( 2 - 3 sets)



TYPES OF TENSILE TESTS
Transverse Tensile Test
Longitudinal Tensile Test
TYPE OF BEND TESTS
ASME
Transverse Bends
1. Root
2. Face
3. Side
Longitudinal Bends
1. Root
2. Face
OVERLAYS
Corrosion Resistant Overlays
Hard Facing Overlays

TESTS FOR OVERLAYS (PQR)
Corrosion Resistant Overlays
DP (Barrier / Final layer)
Chemistry (at qualifying height)
Side Bends
Hard Facing Overlays
DP (Barrier / Final layer)
Chemistry (at qualifying height)
Hardness
WELDERS QUALIFICATION
Essential variables
Process (es)
Base Metal
Thickness
Product form
Pipe Diameter
Welding Position
Backing
F Number
SUMMARY
Welding is a special process, and as such welding
procedures and welders' performances (skill) must be
pre-qualified and the parameters established during
procedure qualification tests must be maintained during
actual production.

Infrastructure industries must follow this philosophy in
all those areas, where welding fabrication is undertaken
and be guided by the stipulation of Welding Codes.
Weld Quality Management
Quality Management
Objectives and Responsibility for Quality
Concept of Customer
Generic Product Categories
Facets of Quality
Concept of Processes
Quality System Evaluation
Quality Management Practices
Quality System design and Development
Coordination of all Quality Activities
Monitor Quality System
Creating Quality Awareness
Training & Motivation of Employees
Quality Improvement Plan
Yields of Quality Management
Lower Rework and Scrap Level
Lower Defect Rate
Higher Productivity and Performance
Higher Quality Level
On time delivery
Higher Profits and Market Share
Customer Satisfaction
Facets of Quality
Need for the Product
Product Design
Conformance to Product Design
Product Support
Design Considerations
Product reliability
Fitness for the purpose
Adequacy of design
Conformance to specifications and Code
Operation and Maintenance

Weld Quality
Higher quality than is needed is not only
costly but also unnecessary
Levels of quality may vary depending on
service requirements
Low quality welds leads to higher
operational costs
Use of fabrication codes and standards
Fitness for the purpose

Inspection Methods
Visual Inspection
Non-Destructive Evaluation
Liquid Penetrant
Magnetic Particle
Radiography
Ultrasonic
Eddy Current

Inspection Methods (Contd..)
Destructive Examination
Tensile Test
Hardness Test
Impact Test
Bend Test
Corrosion Test
Metallography
Role of Welding Inspector
Familiarity with
Products and Engineering Drawings
National and International Codes and Specs.
PQRs, WPSs and Welder Qualification
Testing Methods and Evaluation
Inspection of Welds
Prior to Welding
PQRs, WPSs and Welder Qualification
Fabrication and testing Plans
Materials Specification and Quality
Welding Consumables
Welding Equipment
Joint design and preparation


Inspection of Welds (Contd..)
During Welding
Joint Fit-up, distortion control and Tack Welds
Conformance to WPS and Qualified Welders
Pre-Heat and Inter pass Temperatures
Control and Handling of Welding Consumable
Visual and Non Destructive Evaluation
Inspection of Welds (Contd..)
After Welding
Conformity to drawings and Specifications
Cleaning and Visual Inspection
Non Destructive Evaluation
Repair
Post Weld Heat Treatment and Testing
Documentation

HEAT TREAMENT

ANNEALING
NORMALISING
HARDENING & TEMPERING
POST HEAT
THERMAL STRESS RELIEF


WELDING MANAGEMENT


Base metal
Base metal
Weld
Heat effected Zone (HAZ
WELD JOINT DETAIL
MANAGEMENT
Management in an Organization
means
Managing
Men
Machine
Material
MANAGEMENT IN WELDING
Men
Welding Engineer
Welding supervisors
Welders
Welding Inspectors
NDT and DT Technicians

Welding power sources
Welding Generators
Rectifiers
HF units
Welding heads
Cooling systems
Safety equipment
MACHINES
ACCESSORIES
Welding Holders
Welding Cables
Cable lugs
TIG welding Torches, Cups Collets
Welding Helmet, Goggles, Gloves
Etc.
MATERIALS
Welding consumables
Electrodes
Wire and Flux
Filler rods
Shielding Gases
Welding Test Plates

Commercial
Engineering
Material Management
Quality Control
Production Engineering
Fabrication Shops and
Sites
OTHER DEPARTMENTS TO
BE COORDINATED
COMMERCIAL
Comments on Customer Enquiries
Previous Experience and Development
needed
Available Felicities
Consumables and Equipment Cost and
Time requirement
Indigenous or Import requirements

Technical requirements and
Acceptability
Deviation or Clarifications needed
Review and Approval of welding
Documents
Progress coordination




ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Comment on Preliminary drawings
Welding approach,Weld joint bevel
design and Location of joint
Material and Consumables
requirements
Test plates for Procedures and
Welders Qualification
PWHT requirements



MATERIALS MANAGEMENT
Welding Consumables
Vendor Development
Technical capabilities
Previous history
MI and TDC Requirements
Cost, Time, Accessibility
Reliability on Quality and Schedule
delivery
QUALITY CONTROL
Quality Assurance Plan Preparation
Third Party Inspection Co-ordination
Materials Test certificates & Heat treatment
Requirements
Production Test Coupon Requirements
Welding Procedures & Welders Qualification Testing
Welders Qualification Continuity Records
NDT Requirements
Documents Submission


PRODUCTION ENGINEERING
Materials arrival Monitoring
Work distribution to Fabrication
Shops
Arrangement of WPS and Welding
Consumables
Welding progress and Schedule
Monitoring

MANAGEMENT IN WELDING
Men
Welding Engineer
Welding supervisors
Welders
Welding Inspectors
NDT and DT Technicians

ROLE OF WELDING
TECHNOLOGIST
Study of Base Metal Weldability
Selection of Welding Process
Selection of Welding Consumables
Selection of Welding Equipment
Development of Welding Procedure
Development of Welding Techniques
Corrective actions During Welding

Knowledge of Welding application
Base Materials and Their Applications
Welding Process Advantages and Limitations
Consumables Storage and Handling Practices
Welding Parameters and Their Effect on Weld Quality
Preheat, Interpass, Post Heat and PWHT
Welding Equipment and Their Applications
Welders Qualification Requirements
Welding Accessories Maintenance and Their Usage
Ability to Guide the Welder
Weld Inspection and Testing techniques
WELDING SUPERVISOR

Should Perform the Weld As Per the WPS
Should Have Theoretical Understanding and
Practical Skill
Should Know the Base Metal Characteristics
for Welding
Should Operate the Welding Equipment
Should Understand The Weld Joint Criticality
Should Have the Required Qualification

Should have the knowledge of Welding Processes
Should Inspect the Welding Performance
Should Ensure the parameters implementation as per
WPS
Should Record and Maintain the Welding History
Should Inspect and Organise testing
Should Identify defect and suggest repair procedure
Should interpret the tested results and judge the
quality.


WELDING TECHNOLOGY GROUP
FUNCTIONS
Welding Procedure Specification (WPS)
Procedure Qualification Record (PQR)
Welder Performance Qualification (WPQ)
Welding Consumables Qualification
(WCQ)
Welding Equipment
Welding Technology Experimental Shop
Welding Trouble Shooting
WELDING PROCEDURE
QUALIFICATION
Study the Requirements of Qualifications
Arrange Test Plates, Consumables and
Equipment
Weld the Test Plate
Conduct NDE tests
Physical Testing
Compare the Results With the requirements
Approval and Recording
WPS GROUP ACTIVITIES
Comment on Enquiries, work order Data
sheets customer specification etc.
Comments on Preliminary Drawings
Welding Consumables Estimation
Welding Procedures and Welders
Qualifications Requirements
Welding Documents (WPS &WDS)
Preparation and Approval
Welding Progress Monitoring
Consolidate the requirements given by the WPS group
Define Technical Delivery Condition Material Indent and
Float Enquires
Technical Clarification on Offers
Recommendation and Purchase order Release
Material Receipt,
Test certificates Comparison with TDC
Material testing and Acceptance
Storage, Issue and Monitoring
Welding consumables
WELDERS QUALIFICATION
RECORDS
Training and Qualification of New Welders
Monitoring old Qualification
Maintain Continuity Records
Renewal of Qualification

COMMOMLY AVAILABLE FCAW
PRODUCTS
FCAW Product for Positional Welding of
CS / LAS With Gas Shielding.
Self Shielded FCAW Product for CS
Self Shielded for HF Products
Gas Shielded SS Small Dia.Cored Wire
Product for Fabrication
Self shielded SS Cored Wire for SS
Overlay /Cladding

SELECTION CRITERIA
Chemical & Mechanical Properties
Commercial Availability of Product
Suitability for Restraint Welds -Hydrogen
Level in Weld Metal
Type of Gas Shielding to be used
Feasibility of Application
Cost Factor

ACID vs BASIC vs METAL CORED vs
RUTILE BASIC
E70T-1 vs E70T-5 vs E70C-6M vs E70T-1
ACID BASIC METALCORED RUTILE BASIC
UTS,Mpa
YS Mpa
%E
585
518
23
535
450
28
575
517
27
585
497
27
IMPACT J
-18 DeG C
-29 Deg C
40-65
20-45
110-160
80-135
75-100
25-55
80-125
65-100
HYDROGEN
Ml/100 GMS
5-10 2-5 3-8 2-5
OPE.CHARAC.
BEAD SHAPE
FLAT CONVEX FLAT FLAT
WETTING
ACTION
VERY GOOD FAIR GOOD VERY GOOD
STORAGE & RECONDITIONING
FOR SMAW /FCAW
SMAW
Low Hydrogen Store 100-150 Deg C
Recondition at 400 Deg C- 1Hr
Stainless Recondition at 200 Deg C- 1Hr
FCAW
Plastic Recondition at 50 Deg C- 48Hr Min
Coils Store 100-125 Deg C
Recondition at 150 Deg C- 6-8Hrs
Wire Spool Store 150 Deg C
Basket Recondition at 250 Deg C- 2-3Hrs
Higher Rebake Temperature , Faster Reconditioning

FCAW CONSUMABLES AVILABILITY
E70T-1 FOR
E71T-1 BOILER
E70T5 QUALITY
E81T1-W
WHEATHERING
E80T1-A1 FOR
E80T1-B2 LOW
ALLOY
E8-T1-B3 STEEL
E80T5-G FOR
E90T5-K2 HSLA
E100T5K3 STEELS
E110T5-K4
E308TX-X FOR SS
E316TX-X POSITIONAL
E312TX-X WELDING
E309TX-X
E308.T0-3 FOR
E309T0-3 CLADDING
CORED STAINLESS STEEL WIRES
Metal Cored - Mostly metallic Powders in the
Core.Welding Characteristics similar to solid wire
Self Shielded -Generates its Own Protective Gas
.Used in Flat & Horizontal Position only
Down Hand Gas Shielded - For Flat & Horizontal
Positions
All -Position Gas Shielded -Newest Type for
Welding in all-position

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
For Joining Similar Material
For Cladding & Overlay Welding
For Corrosion Resistance Application
For Cryogenic Application
For Dissimilar Metal Welding



METAL CORED
Deposition Efficiencies : 98%
Shielding Gases : 98% Ar 2% O2
95% Ar 5% CO2
Higher Deposition Rates Than Solid Wire
Types Commonly Available: 409 Ti
410
430
439
SELF- SHIELDED CSS AWS 5.22
Application :Joining & Cladding
Deposition Efficiencies : 75 - 85 %
Increasing the Voltage Increase N2 Level
at a Constant Current Decrease Ferrite
Increasing Electrode Extension Decreases N2
Level
at a Constant Current Increases Ferrite
Types Generally available
E 307T-3 E309T-3
E308MoT-3 E316LT-3
E308LT-3 E 347T-3
DOWNHAND GAS SHIELDED CSS
AWS 5.22
Deposition Efficiency : 87 - 92%
Shielding Gases : 100 % CO2
75% Ar & 25% CO2
ADVANTAGES
Faster Travel Speeds Than Solid Wire
Spray Arc Transfer
Low Spatter
Fine Rippled Bead
Self Releasing Slag


ALL-POSITION GAS SHIELDED
CSS
Deposition Efficiencies : 86 -90%
Shielding Gases : 75% Ar & 25% Co2
100% CO2
Fast Freezing Slag System
High Current Levels For Welding in the Vertical &
Overhead Position
Types Available
E 308Lt-1 E317LT-1
E309LT-1 E309MoLT-1
E316LT-1 E347LT-1
MMAW ELECTRODE -CONSTITUENTS &
THEIR FUNCTIONS```
CONSTITUENTS
IRON OXIDE
TITANIUM DIOXIDE
MAGNESIUM OXIDE
CAL. FLOURIDE
POT. SILICATE
OTHER SILICATES
CAL. CORBONATE
OTHER ORBONATES
CELLULOSE
FERRO MANGANESE
FERRO CHROME
FERRO SILICON
PRIMARY FUNCTION
SLAG FORMER
SLAG FORMER
FLUXING AGENT
SLAG FORMER
ARC STABILISER
SLAG FORMER &
BINDER
GAS FORMER
GAS FORMER
GAS FORMER
ALLOYING
ALLOYING
DE-OXIDISING
SECONDARY FUNCTION
ARC STABILISER
ARC STABILISER
NIL
FLUXING AGENT
BINDER
FLUXING AGENT
ARC STABILISER
NIL
NIL
DEOXIDISER
NIL
NIL
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING-SMAW
STICK/MANUAL/MMAW
Advantages
Variety of Electrodes with Different features
Most versatile -All Positional Joints /Joints with
Limited Access
Suitable for most Alloys
Equipment Simple ,Portable & Inexpensive
Disadvantages
Finite Length
High dependence on Welders Skill
Not Amenable to Automation
TYPES OF SLAG SYSTEM
Acid

Basic

Metal cored

Rutile Basic (Semi- Basic)
SELECTING A WELDING PROCESS

Available Forms of Filler Metal Needed
Available Welding Equipments
Dimension of the Weldments
Number of Pieces to be Welded
SOURCE OF HYDROGEN IN WELD
Welding Consumables
Moisure in Flux (SAW)
Excess Lubricant on Electrodes (FCAW
&GMAW)
Moisure / Hydrogen in Shielding Gas (FCAW
&GMAW)
Moister in Coating (SMAW)
Moister in Fluxing Ingredients (FCAW)

Work Piece
Moisture ,Oils .Rust . Paint

Ambient Conditions
EFFECTS OF
HYDROGEN ON STEEL
Porosity /Worm Tracking

Loss of Ductility

Hydrogen Cracking
SELECTION OF PROPER GAS
Material Types
-Carbon ,Stainless , Aluminium ,Etc
Material Condition
- Rusty ,Oily , Primed , Etc
Types Of Metal Transfer
- Short Circuit ,Spray , Pulse , Etc
Weld Metal Mechanical Properties
Job Requirements
- Fit- Up
- Penetration
- Spatter Levels
PROPER SELECTION OF
CONSUMABLES

Base Material Strength
Base Material Composition
Welding Position
Joint Design &Fit-Up
Thickness & Shape of Material
Service Condition & /or Specification
Production Efficiency & Job Condition






SELECTION CRITERIA
Chemical & Mechanical Properties
Commercial Availability of Product
Suitability for Restraint Welds -Hydrogen
Level in Weld Metal
Type of Gas Shielding to be used
Feasibility of Application
Cost Factor

COSTING
FIXED COST
Joint Preparation

Fixturing

Tacking
Preheating

Cleaning

Inspection

Rs
Costing
COSTING
Power & 2-5%
Equipment

Electrode
Cost 8-15 %

Labour & 80-85
%
Overhead Cost
LABOUR &
OVERHEAD
POWER &
EQUIP.
ELECTRODE
COST
Costing
INCREASED WELDING PRODUCTIVITY
REDUCED WELDING COST
Costing
ELECTRODE EFFICIENCY
& STUB END LOSS
DATA ON EFFECT OF STUB END LOSSES
TYPE -E7018 ELECTRODES

EFFICIENATY AT 50 mm STUB LOSS -70 %
EFFICIENATY AT 75 mm STUB LOSS -64.5%
EFFICIENATY AT 100 mm STUB LOSS -59.1%
EFFICIENATY AT 125 mm STUB LOSS -54.5%
EFFICIENATY AT 150 mm STUB LOSS -49.1%
450
mm
WELD METAL COST FORMULAS
1 Labour & Labour & Overhead Cost/Hr
Overhead = ----------------------------------------
Deposition Operating
Rate (Kg/Hr) X Factor
Electrode Cost / Kg
2 Electrode: = ---------------------------------
Deposition Efficiency
Gas Flow Rate Cu.Meters/
Hr. X Gas Cost / litre
3 Gas = ------------------------------------
Deposition Rate (Kg/Hr)
Flux Cost/kg X 1.4
4 Flux = -------------------------------------
Deposition Efficiency
Cost Rs/KWH x Volts x Amps
5 Power Cost = ----------------------------------
1000 X Deposition Rate
(kg/Hr)
Total Cost per kg = Sum of 1-5 , Above
of Deposited Weld Metal
WELD METAL COST WORKSHEET
FCAW AS COMPARED TO SMAW - WELDING POSITION - FLAT
CALCULATING COST CAL. COST CAL FCAW
COST PER KG FCAW SMAW Vs.
DEP. WELD E 71T-1 / 1.6 DIA. E 7018 / 5mm SMAW
AT 300 A/28 V AT 250 A/28 V * COST RED.-
Labour &
Overhead 150/5X0.45 66.67 150/2.5 X0.30 200 -133.33
Electrode: 150/0.87 172.4 60 /0.65 92.3 80.4
Gas 990 x 0.04 /5 7.92 NA 7.92
Power Cost 4 x 300 x 28 / 4 x 250 x 28 /
1000 x 5 6.72 1000 x 2.5 11.2 -4.48
Sum of Total Variable 253.7 Total Variable 304 -49.29
the Above cost/kgDeposite Cost/kg Deposite :
Rework at 3% at 15%
COST 253.72 /0.97 261.56 303.51 /0.85 357 -95.54
Basic Cost Saving per Kg with FCAW = 49.29
Actual Cost Saving pr Kg with FCAW = 95.54
HOW WELDING SMARTER SAVED 120,000
MAN-HOURS
Walking Dragline - 12,000 MT Weight
Boom Height : 95 M
Hoist Depth : 55 M
Bucket Load :325 MT
Cylindrical Steel Base
32 M Dia. 2.5 M Wide & 140 MT Weight
Replacement of the Base
Estimated 160,000 Man- Hour with SMAW(80
Months)
Estimated 40,000 Man- Hour with FCAW (20
Months)
32M
2.5M
Wedge Shaped Segments Make Up Dragon Base
150 mm
SS FCAW TO RESCUE OF ASPRIN
MAKERS HEAD ACHE
SS Half Coil Reactor
Found Leaking.
Leak Spots
Identified as likely
restart points in OH
Position.
Small Dia. SS
FCAW made it
possible to reduce
restart points
Better approach
made improved
Fusion Possible.

HALF COIL
ONE MINUTE WELD VERTICAL UP
POSITION-6MM FILLET
One Minute Welds made
using SMAW 3.2mm 70mm,
GMAW-0.9mm 105 mm
FCAW 1.2mm 300 mm
Cost aspect based on above
productivity.

FCAW SMAW GMAW
900
1300
2900
DEP. COST PER KG
C
O
S
T

I
N

R
S
.

LABOUR &OVERHEAD-RS.500
SMAW
FCAW
GMAW
PROCESS SHARE FOR VARIOUS
COUNTRIES
INDIA USA
SMAW
80%
SMAW
35%
GMAW
55%
SAW8%
GTAW2%
SAW 8%
GMAW
10%
GTAW 2%
GTAW
SMAW
SAW
GMAW
GTAW
SMAW
SAW
GMAW
EUROPE
JAPAN
GMAW
60%
SMAW
30%
SAW
8%
GTAW 2%
SMAW
20%
GTAW 2%
SAW8%
GMAW
70%
GLOBAL PROCESS SHARE
OF WELD METAL
JAPAN EUROPE USA INDIA
SMAW 20% 30% 35% 80%
SAW 8% 8% 8% 8%
GTAW 2% 2% 2% 2%
GMAW 70% 60% 55% 10%
PROCESS SHARE IN GLOBAL
PERSPECTIVE
Steady Increase in Solid & Core Wire
Consumption
Covered Electrode Consumption will Decline
& Stabilise around 30%
In Developed Countries, CO2 Welding
Accounts for more than 50%
In Developing Countries like China & Korea
CO2 Process Share is already around 15%