Chapter 13

Communication Processes
Learning Goals
Explain the basic communication processes
of organizations
Understand the effects of verbal and
nonverbal communication
Distinguish between the functions and
dysfunctions of organizational
communication
Learning Goals (Cont.)
Discuss the features of listening, especially
of active listening
Describe ways to make communication
processes more effective
Understand the effects of new technology
on communication
Describe communication networks and the
roles that can emerge within a network
Overview
Introduction
The Basic Communication Process
Types of Communication
Functions of Organizational
Communication
Dysfunctions of Organizational
Communication
Listening
Overview (Cont.)
Active Listening
Improving Communication Effectiveness in
Organizations
Technology and communication
Communication Roles in Organizations
Communication Networks
International Aspects of Communication
Ethical Issues in Communication
Introduction
The word communication will be used here
in a very broad sense to include all of the
procedures by which one mind may affect
another. This, of course, involves not only
written and oral speech, but also music, the
pictorial arts, the theatre, the ballet, and in
fact all human behavior.
View of communication
Introduction (Cont.)
Quotation from opening of a classic work
describing an early communication theory
Heart of the definition is in the first
sentence
Communication in organizations tries to
affect behavior of at least one other person
Introduction (Cont.)
Organizational communication
Purpose, flow, and direction of messages and
media used for those messages
Another view of behavior in organizations
Message behavior: sending, receiving, and
giving meaning to messages
Introduction (Cont.)
Organizational communication
(cont.)
Happens over a pathway called a network
Formal: defined by formal organizational
positions; relationships among those positions
Informal: patterns of informal social
interaction; informal groups in the organization
Introduction (Cont.)
Organizational communication
(cont.)
Communication in any direction: downward,
upward, horizontal
Communication networks: interdependent,
interlocking, overlapping systems of interaction
See text book Figure 13.1
The Basic
Communication Process
Sender
Decides what message to send
Encodes it using symbols he or she assumes the
receiver will understand
Converts message to a signal
Sends message over communication channel to
receiver
The Basic
Communication Process (Cont.)
Communication channel
Person's voice
Electronic device
Written medium
Video medium
The Basic
Communication Process (Cont.)
Receiver
Decodes message and interprets its meaning
Responds to message by acting in a manner
consistent with that interpretation
The Basic
Communication Process (Cont.)
Communication media
Telephone
E-mail
Letter or memorandum
Videoconference
Face-to-face meeting
Internet chat rooms
The Basic
Communication Process (Cont.)
Choosing medium
Written media for formality and a clear
message
Face-to-face meeting to convey a sense of
teamwork
E-mail use is largely based on availability and
ease of use to the receiver
The Basic
Communication Process (Cont.)
Feedback loop
Interdependence between sender and receiver
during communication process
Sender interprets the receivers response
Can send an additional message for clarification
The Basic
Communication Process (Cont.)
Noise: distortions, errors, and foreign
material often affect the quality of the signal
Additions to the signal not intended by the
sender
Surrounds entire communication process
Can make communication less effective
Diversity, domestic and international, adds
additional noise
Types of Communication
Verbal communication: oral, written,
electronic, video
Nonverbal communication: eye
movements, gestures, facial expressions
Adds much of the feeling and emotion that a
sender wants to give to a message
Often has more effect than verbal on the
meaning receivers give a message
Types of Communication (Cont.)
Verbal communication
Oral communication
All forms of speech between a sender and receiver
Leaves no permanent, retrievable record of the
message and response unless recorded
More effective than written when trying to affect
receiver's opinion on some matter
Nonverbal communication can affect the final
interpretation of the message
Types of Communication (Cont.)
Verbal communication (cont.)
American Sign Language (ASL)
Uses patterns of hand and finger movements for
communication
Includes facial expressions and body movements to
express emotions and distinguish sentence types
Country and regional differences in signing systems
Types of Communication (Cont.)
Verbal communication (cont.)
Written communication
Any form of handwriting, printed memo, or report
Includes messages sent over an electronic medium
Receiver's response is more delayed in written than
in oral communication
Receiver must first read the message before
interpreting and responding to it
Types of Communication (Cont.)
Verbal communication (cont.)
Written communication (Cont.)
Advantages over oral communication
Retrievable
Almost permanent
Comprehension is better because of rereading
Types of Communication (Cont.)
Verbal communication (cont.)
Electronic or video communication
Electronic and video communication becoming
more important
E-mail, computer networks, fax machines, computer
conferencing, videoconferencing
All now available as desktop systems
Types of Communication (Cont.)
Verbal communication (cont.)
Electronic or video communication (cont.)
Advantages
High speed transmission and reception
Accurate transmission of a message
Easy dispersal of the same message to people in
scattered locations
Direct interaction and quick feedback
Types of Communication (Cont.)
Nonverbal communication
Behavior that communicates but does not use
written or spoken words
Gestures
Posture
Seating position
Pitch of voice
Speed of speech
Physical environment . . .
Types of Communication (Cont.)
Nonverbal communication (cont.)
Combine verbal and nonverbal communication
Create unique communication style, often
unknowingly
Can contradict, amplify, or complement verbal
communication
Types of Communication (Cont.)
Nonverbal communication (cont.)
Physical aspects of the person
Voice: speed, fluency, references to self
Facial expressions: smile, frown
Gestures: hand movements
Body movements: distance
Posture: leaning forward
Types of Communication (Cont.)
Nonverbal communication (cont.)
Physical environment of communication
All aspects of using space, including distance
between sender and receiver (proxemics)
North America: 5 1/2 to 8 feet between speakers
Latin America: closer than North America
See the International Aspects
section for more information.
Types of Communication (Cont.)
Nonverbal communication (cont.)
Time
Orientation to and meaning of time
North America: punctual
Latin America: less punctual
Swiss: precisely punctual
Arab cultures: last person to arrive is the most
important
See the International Aspects
section for more information.
Types of Communication (Cont.)
Nonverbal communication (cont.)
Communication with signs and signals
Turn signals on motor vehicles, traffic control
signals, caution flags of highway workers
Hand signals for guiding aircraft
Special situation: landing on an aircraft carrier
Functions of Organizational
Communication
Share information
Mission
Strategies
Policies
Tasks, duties, responsibilities
Both inside and outside the organization
Functions of Organizational
Communication (Cont.)
Feedback about performance
Reduces uncertainty
Integration and coordination of various
functions
Especially important in global operations
Functions of Organizational
Communication (Cont.)
Persuasion
Affecting the behavior of others
Often the focus of improvement in
communication skills
Related to business presentations
Emotional expression: let employees
express their feelings
Innovation. Communicate innovations to
those inside and outside the organization
Dysfunctions of Organizational
Communication
Selective perception
Receiver filters a message and then gives
meaning to it
Block out information a receiver does not want
to hear
Semantic problems
Different people have different meanings for
words
Good, average, Do your best
Jargon: burden, metrology
Dysfunctions of Organizational
Communication (Cont.)
Distortion of messages: different frames
of reference because of background
Filter messages
Intentional: sender is concerned about
receivers reaction
Unintentional: sender does not fully know
what she or he wants to say
Dysfunctions of Organizational
Communication (Cont.)
Information overload
Too much information to process accurately
Related to time available
Message timing
Too short of time
Too early
Listening
Different from hearing
Hearing is a physiological process of
detecting and processing sounds
Listening: mental process of assigning
meaning to sounds
Communication professionals view it as a
primary skill for success
People spend about 50 percent of their time
listening
Listening (Cont.)
Intrapersonal and interpersonal activities
Person receives message from another person
(interpersonal)
Tries to interpret it (intrapersonal)
Responds to other person to show meaning
given to message (interpersonal)
Active Listening
Listener is responsible for the completeness
of a speaker's message
Listener's role is not passive
Absorbing spoken message
Deriving meaning from it
Accurately hear facts in message
Understand speaker's feelings about
message
Active Listening (Cont.)
Deliberate effort to understand a message
from speaker's viewpoint
Meaning of message includes both content
and speakers feelings
Listener attends to all verbal and nonverbal
cues
Listener may ask questions for clarification
Listener may rephrase speakers message
Improving
Communication Effectiveness
Sender
Understand receivers background
Culture
Education
Social status
Professional or technical training
Improving
Communication Effectiveness
(Cont.)
Sender (cont.)
Avoid jargon
Knowledge of receiver helps sender form
messages with content that communicates
Take special care when communicating with
people from other cultures
Applies to oral communication, written
communication, and nonverbal communication
Improving
Communication Effectiveness
(Cont.)
Sender (cont.)
Ask for oral or written feedback to a message
Gives sender observations on receiver's
perception and interpretation of message
Formal training
Improve written and oral communication
Improve sender's effectiveness
Improving
Communication Effectiveness
(Cont.)
Receiver
Knowing and understanding sender
Ask sender for clarification of jargon
Receiver's knowledge of self
Using jargon introduces noise
Can distort messages received
Improving
Communication Effectiveness
(Cont.)
Receiver (cont.)
Receiver's perceptual process: alters senders
meaning of messages
Ask sender to clarify message
State understanding of message; sender can
react to that interpretation
Improving
Communication Effectiveness
(Cont.)
Message
Simple concise messages
Language shared by sender and receiver
Problem: jargon, in-group language, foreign
language
Simple concise sentences, in language shared by the
sender and receiver, are more effective than long
complex messages riddled with jargon.
Improving
Communication Effectiveness
(Cont.)
Message (Cont.)
Electronic message systems lack nonverbal
communication
Emoticons ("smileys") add feelings and
emotions to text messages
Improving
Communication Effectiveness
(Cont.)
Medium
Little noise for effective communication
Multiple channels
Written memo follows an oral message
Meet with receiver to discuss memo
Improving
Communication Effectiveness
(Cont.)
Medium (Cont.)
People perceive high-contrast objects faster
than low-contrast objects (see Chapter 5)
Introduce high contrast into messages by using
paper or ink of different colors than normal
Change the setting in which an oral message is
sent
Technology and Communication
Major changes from fiber optics and new
satellites
Digital cellular telephone: easy
communication around the world
Wireless facsimile devices and modems
Laptop or notepad computers with digital
cellular facsimile devices and modems
Unprecedented flexibility and mobility of
communication
Technology and Communication
(Cont.)
Distributed computing
Digital technology and data on a network
Text
Images
Audio
Video
Numeric
Technology and Communication
(Cont.)
Satellites, fiber optics, Internet, personal
computers
High-speed connections among networks
Global operations: move all forms of
information quickly to distant places
Internet commerce
Technology and Communication
(Cont.)
Satellites, fiber optics, Internet, Personal
computers (cont.)
Students in different countries interact to
complete course work
Transmit almost any media
Lessen effects of time zone differences
Technology and Communication
(Cont.)
Videoconferencing
Face-to-face communication over almost any
distance
See each other
Speak to each other
Show graphic images
Send documents
Substitutes for traveling to distant sites for
meetings
Technology and Communication
(Cont.)
Desktop videoconferencing
Two-way video and audio interaction
Window on each person's computer screen lets
them see each other
Text or graphics show on screen
Interact to revise material for an upcoming joint
business presentation
Technology and Communication
(Cont.)
Multimedia personal computers
Manage information media of any form
Computer features
Scanners
Sound boards
Presentation software
CD-ROMs
Animation software
Make large audience communication more
dramatic than in past
Communication Roles
in Organizations
Initiators: start communications; send
more messages than they receive or pass on
Relayers: receive and pass on more
messages than they start or end
Liaison
Connects two parts of an organization; not a
member of either part
Helps coordinate organizational functions
Can hinder message flow if they become
bottlenecks
Communication Roles in
Organizations (Cont.)
Passive communication roles
Terminators
At end of a communication network
Mainly receive messages
Infrequently send or relay messages to others
Isolates
Usually outside normal communication process
Send, receive, or relay only a few messages
Communication Networks
Structured communication system in
organizations
Formal organizational design defines some
networks
Informal social interaction defines others
All communication forms: face-to-face,
electronic media, video media
Communication Networks
(Cont.)
Pair-wise communication: Oral or written
communication between two people
Each person in a pair focuses attention on the
other party
Direction: top-down, bottom-up, lateral
Communication Networks
(Cont.)
Small group communication
Three or more people interacting
Face-to-face or widely dispersed
Occurs within departments, work units, teams,
informal groups
Communication interaction rotates among
members; a structured or a random pattern
Within a centralized or a decentralized network
Communication Networks
(Cont.)
Centralized communication
Single person is a key figure in sending and
receiving messages
Only one or a few parts of the network get
information
Faster and fewer errors when solving simple
problems
Less effective with complex problems
Communication Networks
(Cont.)
Decentralized communication
Freely flowing communication
Spread potential to get information throughout
the network
No person in network depends exclusively on
anyone else
Faster and more accurate with complex
problems than with simple problems
Process more messages
Higher satisfaction among network members
Communication Networks
(Cont.)
Large audience communication
Get a message from one person or a few people
to many people
Sender designs message before sending it
Usually sent continuously with no interruption
from audience
Examples: department meetings, briefing
sessions, training programs
International Aspects of
Organizational Communication
Nonverbal communication: a major role
across cultures
Distance between people
North Americans: stand 5 1/2 to 8 feet apart
Latin American cultures: people stand much closer
Reactions
Latin American moves close to the North American
North American backs away
Latin American might perceive the North American
as cold and distant
International Aspects of
Organizational Communication
(Cont.)
Time orientation
Latin Americans view time more casually than
North Americans
Swiss strongly emphasize promptness in
keeping appointments
Egyptians usually do not look to the future
International Aspects of
Organizational Communication
(Cont.)
Time orientation (cont.)
South Asians view the long term as centuries
Sioux Indians of the United States do not have
words for "time" or "wait" in their native
language
Potential misunderstandings are large
Ethical Issues in
Organizational Communication
Communication processes and an
organization's ethical image
Internal and external
Internal processes
Newsletters
Satellite television broadcasts
Direct mailings
Bulletin boards
Ethical Issues in Organizational
Communication (Cont.)
Communication processes and an
organization's ethical image (cont)
External processes
Annual reports
Press releases
Public statements by executives
What does the organization say and not say
about ethical behavior?
Organizations ethical image
Ethical Issues in Organizational
Communication (Cont.)
Manage external impressions
Offering own accounts of behavior that
protesters say was unethical
Communication in any form designed to affect
the perception of others
Tries to make the organization, or individual
members, look more ethical than charged
Ethical Issues in Organizational
Communication (Cont.)
Disclosure to employees, customers,
suppliers, community
Does the organization have an ethical
obligation to reveal negative information about
its plans to employees?
How much should an organization tell its
customers or clients about product safety?
Should an organization tell its suppliers how it
chooses among them?
Ethical Issues in Organizational
Communication (Cont.)
Communication privacy
Do employees have the right to private
communications in the work setting?
Existing software lets network managers and
senior managers read employees' E-mail
Do people's privacy rights extend to
computer surveillance?