Ideal Diode Model

Lets begin with an ideal diode and look at its characteristics

Real PN Junction Diode I-V
Characteristic

Typical PN junction diode I-V
characteristic is shown on the right.
In forward bias, the PN junction
has a turn on voltage based on
the built-in potential of the PN
junction. The turn on voltage is
typically in the range of 0.5V to
0.8V
In reverse bias, the PN junction
conducts essentially no current until
a critical breakdown voltage is
reached. The breakdown voltage
can range from 1V to 100V.
Breakdown mechanisms include
avalanche and zener tunneling.

Current Equations
The forward bias current is closely approximated by
S
I i ~
q kT V e I i
T
nV
S
T
/ where 1
/
= |
.
|

\
|
=
u
where V
T
is the thermal voltage (~25.8mV at room temp T= 300K or 27C )
k = Boltzmans constant = 1.38 x 10-23joules/kelvin
T = absolute temperature
q = electron charge = 1.602 x 10-19coulombs
n = constant dependent on structure, between 1 and 2 (we will assume
n = 1)
I
S
= scaled current for saturation current that is set by diode size
Notice there is a strong dependence on temperature
We can approximate the diode equation for i>> I
S
T
nV
S
e I i
/ u
~
In reverse bias (when v << 0 by at least V
T
), then
In breakdown, reverse current increases rapidlya vertical line

Mobile Carriers

Now lets look at physical mechanisms from which the current
equations come.
Weve seen that holes and electrons move through a semiconductor
by two mechanisms drift and diffusion

In equilibrium, diffusion current (I
D
) is balanced by drift current
(I
S
). So, there is no net current flow. Drift current comes from
(thermal) generation of electron-hole pairs (EHP).
Band Diagrams
When the P-type material is contacted
with the N-type material, the Fermi
levels must be at equilibrium.
Band bending: The conduction and
valence bands bend to align the Fermi
levels.
Electrons diffuse from the N-side to the
P-side and recombine with holes at the
boundary. Holes diffuse from the P-side
to the N-side and recombine with
electrons at the boundary. There is a
region at the boundary of charged atoms
called the space-charge region (also
called the depletion region b/c no mobile
carriers in this region)
An electric field is created which results
in a voltage drop across the region
called the barrier voltage or built-in
potential
What happens when P-type meets
N-type?
( )
dx
dV
x E =
Holes diffuse from the p-type into the n-type, electrons diffuse from the n-
type into the p-type, creating a diffusion current. The diffusion equation is
given by
constant diffusion the is where
n n n
D
dx
dn
qD J =
Once the holes [electrons] cross into the n-type [p-type] region, they
recombine with the electrons [holes].
This recombination strips the n-type [p-type] of its electrons near the
boundary, creating an electric field due to the positive and negative bound
charges.
The region stripped of carriers is called the space-charge region, or
depletion region.
V0is the contact potential that exists due to the electric field.
Some carriers are generated (thermally) and make their way into the
depletion region where they are whisked away by the electric field, creating a
drift current.
E-field and Built-in Potential
( ) ( )dx x E x V
x
}

=
( ) ( )dx x x
x
o r

}

=
c c
1
Diffusion is balanced by drift due to
bound charges at the junction that
induce an E-field.
Integrating the bound charge density
gives us the E-field
( )
dx
dV
x =
Integrating the E-field gives the
potential gradient
Junction Built-In Voltage
With no external biasing, the voltage across the depletion region is:
2
ln
i
D A
T o
n
N N
V V =
Typically, at room temp, V
0
is 0.6~0.8V
How does V
0
change as temperature increases?

Note that there is no measurable potential difference between
the n-type and p-type materials of pn junction when in
equilibrium. The electrochemical potentials (Fermi levels) are the
equal.
Width of Depletion Region
D
A
N
N
p
x
n
x
=
D A
AN
n
qx AN
p
qx =
o
V
N N q
s
p
x
n
x W
D A
depl
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
1 1
2c
The width of the depletion region can
be found as a function of doping and the
built-in voltage
The depletion region exists on both sides
of the junction. The widths in each side is a
function of the respective doping levels.
Charge-equality gives:
c
s
is the electrical permittivity of
silicon = 11.7
0
(where
0
= 8.854E-
14 F/cm)
Pn Junction in Reverse Bias (1)
o
V
R
V
jo
C
j
C
+
=
1
( )
R o
D A
s
p n depl
V V
N N q
x x W +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
1 1 2c
As the depletion region grows, the capacitance across the diode
changes.
Treating the depletion region as a parallel plate capacitor
Reverse Bias (2)
Reverse bias: apply a negative
voltage to the p-type, positive to
n-type.
Increase the built-in potential,
increase the barrier height.
Decrease the number of carriers
able to diffuse across the barrier.
Diffusion current decreases.
Drift current remains the same
(due to generation of EHP).
Almost no current flows. Reverse
leakage current, I
S
, is the drift
current, flowing from n to p.
Reverse Breakdown
Zener Breakdown: The bands bend so much that carriers
tunnel through the depletion region. This will occur in heavily
doped junctions when the n-side conduction band appears
opposite the p-side valence band.

Avalanche Breakdown: carriers have enough energy to ionize
an electron-hole-pair (EHP), creating more highly energetic
carriers, which collide to form more EHPs, which creates
pn Junction in Forward Bias (1)
( ) kT E E
i
F i
e n p
/
=
( ) kT E E
i
i F
e n n
/
=
Now lets look at the condition where
we push current through the pn junction
in the opposite direction.
Add more majority carriers to both
sides shrink the depletion region
lower V
0
diffusion current increases
Look at the minority carrier
concentration
lower barrier allows more carriers to
be injected to the other side
Note that n
p0
= n
i
2
/N
A
and
p
n0
= n
i
2
/N
D

This comes from two equations
( )
T
V V
no n n
e p x p
/
=
p p p
D L t =
( ) ( ) | |
( )
p
L x
no n n no n
e p x p p x p
/ '
'

+ =
( )
( )
p n
T
L x x
V V
no
p
p
P
e e p
L
D
q J
/
/
1

=
The forward bias voltage causes excess minority carriers to be
injected across the junction.
The distribution of excess minority hole concentration in the n-
type Siis an exponentially decaying function of distance from x
n
where L
p
is the diffusion length (steepness of exponential decay)
and is set by the excess-minority-carrier lifetime, t
p
. The average
time it takes for a hole injected into the n region to recombine
with a majority carrier electron
The diffusion of holes leads to the following current density vs. x
( ) 1
/
=
T
V V
no
p
p
P
e p
L
D
q J
( )
T T
V V
s
V V
s
e I e I I
/ /
1 ~ =
( ) 1
/

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
T
V V
po
n
n
no
p
p
e n
L
D
p
L
D
qA I
( ) 1
/
=
T
V V
po
p
n
n
e n
L
D
q J
In equilibrium, as holes diffuse away, they must be met by a constant
supply of electrons with which they recombine. Thus, the current must
be supplied at a rate that equals the concentration of holes at the edge
of the depletion region (x
n
). Thus, the current due to hole injection is:
Current due to electrons injected into the p region is
Combined
Minority Carrier Concentration and
Current Densities in Forward Bias

Current is due to the
diffusion of holes and
electrons. Current is
dominated by holes or
electrons depending on
the relative doping of
N
A
vs. N
D

Is N
A
> N
D
or N
A
<N
D
in
this example?

Forward Bias (2)
Forward bias: apply a positive
voltage to the p-type, negative to
n-type.
Decrease the built-in potential,
lower the barrier height.
Increase the number of carriers
able to diffuse across the barrier
Diffusion current increases
Drift current remains the same
Current flows from p to n
Review of Biasing

Applying a bias adds or
subtracts to the built-in
potential.

This changes the diffusion
current, making it harder or
easier for the carriers to
diffuse across.

The drift current is
essentially constant, as it is
dependent on temperature.

Photodiodes

Diodes have an optical generation
rate. Carriers are created by shining
light with photon energy greater than
the bandgap.

Photodetector: should have large
depletion widths and long diffusion
lengths (minority carrier lifetimes) so
that photo generatedEHPscan be
collected and swept across the
junction.

Solar Cell: operating in the fourth
quadrant generates current, though
small.
Light Emitting Diodes
When electrons and holes combine,
they release energy.

This energy is often released as heat
into the lattice, but in some
materials, known as direct bandgap
materials, they release light.

Engineering LEDs can be difficult,
but has been done over a wide range
of wavelengths.

This illustration describes the
importance of the plastic bubble in
directing the light so that it is more
effectively seen.

Diode Circuits
T D
V V
s D
e I I
/
= R
V V
I
D DD
D

=
Look at the simple diode circuit below. We can write two equations:
Diode Small-Signal Model
( )
T d
V
D D
e I t i
/ u
=
( )
d
T
D
d d D
T
d
D D
V
I
i i I
V
I t i u
u
= + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ ~ 1
( )
( )
T d T D T d D
V V V
S
V V
S D
e e I e I t i
/ / / u u
= =
+

Some circuit applications bias the diode at a DC
point (V
D
) and superimpose a small signal (v
d
(t))
on top of it. Together, the signal is v
D
(t),
consisting of both DC and AC components
Graphically, can show that there is a translation
of voltage to current (i
d
(t))
Can model the diode at this bias point as a
resistor with resistance as the inverse of the
tangent of the i-v curve at that point
And if v
d
(t) is sufficiently small then we can expand
the exponential and get an approximate expression
called the small-signal approximation (valid for v
d
<
10mV)
So, the diode small-signal resistance is
D
T
d
I
V
r =
d
d
S d
r R
r
+
= u u
Perform the small signal analysis of the diode circuit biased with V
DD
by eliminating the DC sources and replacing the diode with a small
signal resistanceThe resulting voltage divider gives:
Separating out the DC or bias analysis and the small-signal
analysis is a technique we will use extensively