Electromagnetics

(ENGR 367)
Types of T-lines
and Their Applications
 Outline of Lecture
• Identify Types of T-lines versus Waveguides
• Detail construction and applications of each type
• Provide formulas for T-line parameters of each
type that depend on
– LF or HF operation
– Lossy or Lossless conditions
• Show examples of T-line parameter calculation
• Draw some conclusions
 Types of T-lines

• Coaxial cable

• Two-wire line

• Stripline and Microstrip Line

• Other specialized variations

 T-lines versus Waveguides

• T-lines operate in the TEM mode only

(Transverse ElectroMagnetic waves)
• Waveguides carry EM waves that
– May propagate in the TM or TE modes at higher
frequencies and may perform more efficiently than
T-lines in the microwave range
– Take a zig-zag path as they reflect off the
conducting boundaries and propagate along the
main axis of the waveguide
 Detailed Description of
Individual
T-line Types and Their
Applications
• Coaxial Cable: Basic Construction
Radio-grade flexible RG-
59 (Z0 = 75 Ω ) coaxial
cable.
A: outer plastic sheath
B: copper screen
C: inner dielectric
insulator
D: copper core
Other standard types
have similar
construction.

from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coax
 Coaxial Cable
• Other aspects of basic construction
– Stiffness options available on the market
• Flexible type: has braided sheath
• Rigid type: has a solid sheath
(Sheath in either case typically made of
Cu)
– Dielectric insulating layer
• Thickness and permittivity determine
– Characteristic Impedance (Z0)
– Attenuation (α )
• May be either solid or perforated
 Applications of Coaxial
Cable
• Short runs to connect
– Home video equipment
– Ham radio setups (transciever  antenna)
– Satellite TV (dish Rx  set)
– Cable modem & VSAT for Internet Access
– Broadcast radio communication (Tx  ant.)
 Applications of Coaxial
Cable
• Long runs to connect

– Formerly radio and TV networks

(Now replaced by optical and
satellite networks)

– Presently cable TV signals

 Specialized Variations of
Coax
• Triaxial Cable (triax): includes a 3rd
layer of shielding, insulation and
sheathing, the latter is grounded to
further reduce outside interference
• Twin-axial cable (twinax): balanced
twisted pair within a cylindrical
shield for shielded and balanced
differential signals
• Multi-conductor coax
 Review Skin Depth
• A measure of the depth electromagnetic waves
penetrate into a conductor where the amplitude
has decayed by e-1 = 0.368

1
δ= [m]
f πµσ
• Note that as frequency (f) increases, the skin
depth becomes smaller and more significant!
Coax T-line Geometry
 T-line Parameters for Coax
(from Hayt & Buck, 7/e, pp. 483-
484)
• Assuming HF operation such that the skin
depth δ << a = radius of inner
conductor
– Lossless
µ approx.
b (R << ω L and
2πε G << ω C):
Lext = ln   (magnetostatics) C = (electrostatics)
2π  a  ln(b / a )
Lext 1 µ  b  60  b 
∴ Z0 = = ln = ln  
C 2π ε  a  εr  a 

2πσ diel 1 1 1
– Modifications
G= for the
(dielectric); R =lossy case:
+  (conductors)
ln(b / aπδσ
) a b 2 c  
(R + jω Lext )
⇒ Z0 =
(G + jω C)
 T-line Parameters for Coax
(from Hayt & Buck, 7/e, p. 485)
• Modifications for LF operation where the
skin effect is negligible (δ >> a): current
distributes uniformly throughout conductor
cross-sections
– Resistance of conductors increases
1  1 1 
R=  2+ 2 2 
σ cπ  a (c − b ) 
takes into account the entire cross-sections
of the inner and outer conductors
 T-line Parameters for Coax
(from Hayt & Buck, 7/e, p. 485)
• Modifications for LF operation (δ >> a):
– Internal inductance of conductors becomes significant

µ µ
La ,int = (as prev. derived); Lb ,int = f (b, c ) (more complicated)
8π 8π
R + jω L
L = La ,int + Lb ,int ⇒ Z 0 = (with R , L as modified for LF)
G + jω C
• For intermediate frequencies (δ ≅ a):
– Expressions for parameters become more complicated
– One can refer to handbook values as needed
 Example of
Parameter Calculations for
Coax
• Exercise 1 (D14.2a, H&B, 7/e, p. 486)
Given: a coax T-line with a = 4 mm, b = 17.5 mm,
and c = 20 mm. Each conductor has σ = 2 x
107 S/m, and the dielectric has µ r = 1, ε r = 3,
and σ /ω ε = 0.025.
Find: L, C, R, G, and Z0 at 150 MHz.
Solution: 1st 1find the skin depth;
1 compare to a
δ= =
f πµσ (150 × 106 )π (4π × 107 )(2 × 107 )
= 9.2 × 10−6 m = 9.2 µ m << a = 4 mm
∴ use HF model
 Example of
Parameter Calculations for
Coax
• Exercise 1 (continued)
– Solution: next calculate coax T-line parameters

µ  b  4π ×10−7  17.5 
L ext = ln   = ln   = 295 nH/m
2π  a  2π  a 
2πε 2π (3)(8.85 ×10 −12 )
C= = = 113 pF/m
ln(b / a) ln(17.5 / 4)
1 1 1 1  1 1 
R =  +  =  +  = 266 mΩ/m
2πδσ c  a b  2π (9.2 ×10−6 )(2 ×107 )  4 ×10−3 17.5 ×10−3 
2πσ d 2π (0.025ωε ) 2π (0.025)(2π )(150 ×106 )(3)(8.85 ×10 −12 )
G= = = = 2.66 mS/m
ln(b / a) ln(b / a) ln(17.5 / 4)
 Example of
Parameter Calculations for
Coax
• Exercise 1 (continued)
– Solution: check validity of lossless approx. for
Z0
ω L = 2π (150 × 106 )(295 × 10−9 ) = 278 Ω/m
ext

⇒ ω L ext >> R = 266 mΩ/m

ωC = 2π (150 × 106 )(113 × 10−12 ) = 106 mS/m
⇒ ωC >> G = 2.66 mS/m
L ext 295 × 10−9
∴ Z0 B = −12
= 51 Ω (lossless approx.)
C 113 × 10
 Two-wire Line
• Basic Construction
– Two parallel circular conductors of equal radius
and conductivity enclosed in a plastic insulating
material

– Dielectric insulator
• Provides mechanical spacing and some rigidity
• Affects Z0 and α
 Applications of Two-wire
Line
• As a lead-in to carry low level signals from
antenna over a short run to a TV or FM Rx

• Connections in regular telephone networks

• In the conceptual development of a more

sophisticated waveguide systems
(Fast Neutron Research Facility of CMU www.fn
rf.science.cmu.ac.th/theory/ waveguide/Waveg
uide%20theory%202.html)
Parameters of Two-wire Line
(from Hayt & Buck, 7/e, pp. 486-
487)
• For HF operation (δ << a):
– Lossless approximation

µ −1 πε
Lext = cosh (d / 2a ); C =
π cosh −1 ( d / 2a)
Lext 1 µ
∴ Z0 = = cosh −1 (d / 2a )
C π ε
120
= cosh −1 ( d / 2a)
εr
 Parameters of Two-wire Line
(from Hayt & Buck, 7/e, pp. 486-487)
• For HF operation (δ << a):
– Modifications for Lossy conditions

1 πσ diel .
R= and G =
π aδσ cond . cosh −1 ( d / 2a)
R + jω L
∴ Z0 = (with R and G as above)
G + jω C
• In LF operation: must modify above by including R
and L over entire cross-section of conductors as for coax
 Parameters of Two-wire Line
(from Hayt & Buck, 7/e, p. 487)

• For LF operation (δ >> a):

– Inductance per unit length increases by twice
the internal inductance of a straight round wire
µ 1 −1  d  
L =  + cosh  
π 4  2a  
– Resistance per unit length becomes twice the dc
resistance of a wire of radius a and conductivity
σc 2
R =
π a 2σ c
 Example of Parameter
Calculation for Two-wire Line
• Exercise 2 (D14.3, H&B, 7/e, p. 487)
Given: a two-wire T-line with conductors each of
radius 0.8 mm and conductivity 3 x 107 S/m,
separated by 0.8 cm in a dielectric where ε r =
2.5, µ r = 1, and σ d = 4x10-9 S/m
Find: δ , C, G, L & R at 60 Hz
Solution: validate LF model by comparing δ to a
1 1
δ= = = 11.9 mm
f πµσ c (60)π (4π ×10 )(3 × 10 )
−7 7

∴δ >> a = 0.8 mm so LF model applies

 Example of Parameter
Calculation for Two-wire Line
• Exercise 2 (D14.3, H&B, 7/e, p. 487)
Solution: calculate the LF two-wire T-line circuit
param’s
πε π (2.5)(8.85 pF/m)
C= −1
= −1
= 30 pF/m
cosh (d / 2a ) cosh (8 /1.6)
πσ d π (4 nS/m)
G= −1
= −1
= 5.5 nS/m
cosh (d / 2a ) cosh (8 /1.6)
µ 1 −1 d  (400π nH/m)  1 −1 d 
L=  + cosh ( )  =  + cosh ( )  = 1.0 µ H/m
π 4 2a  π 4 2a 
2 2
R= 2 = = 33 mΩ/m
π a σ c π (8 ×10 ) (3 ×10 )
−4 2 7
 Striplines and Microstrip
Lines
• Basic Construction: Stripline
– Single or double track strip of Cu
imbedded in dielectric material
sandwiched between conducting ground
planes on top and bottom
 Striplines and Microstrip
Lines
• Basic Construction: Microstrip
– Single or double track strip of Cu on top of
a dielectric substrate material above a
single conducting ground plane

• In practice, superstrate material may

be other than air
 Striplines and Microstrip
Lines
• Basic Construction: dielectric material

For HF applications, special substrate and

superstrate (if present) materials must be used
with high uniformity and low loss tangent (tanδ
= σ ’/ω ε ’) such as Rogers RT Duroid or FR4 as
manufactured for this application (common PCB
will not work!)
 Applications of
Stripline & Microstrip Line
• Trace connections between devices in PCB
microelectronic circuits
• T-line connections between HF devices easily
integrated with surface mount, distributed
elements and microstrip antennas.
• HF communication systems and devices with
compact, flat, lightweight, constraints and
short run requirements such as cell phones,
portable PCs and and other wireless mobile
devices
Parameters for Microstrip Line
(Single Track)
• If the strip width is large (w >> d),
then the structure acts like a parallel
plate line where for the low loss case

µ  d  377  d 
Z0 ≅  =  
ε  w εr  w 
 Parameters for Microstrip Line
(Single Track)
• If w ≅ d or w < d (as typical for microstrip) then a
quasi TEM mode may be assumed to account for
the propagation of waves through the two different
materials (e.g., air or superstrate and substrate
dielectrics)
• At low frequencies (f < 1.5 GHz) assuming
negligible losses
1 over
1 a short run the propagation
vp0 = = = c (in air only)
velocity is Lext C0 µ0ε 0
1 c
vpd = = (in dielectric only)
µ0ε εr
1 C c
vp = =c 0 = (in dielectric-air medium)
Lext C C ε r,eff
 Parameters for Microstrip Line
(Single Track)
• Definition of Effective Dielectric Constant
(ε ):
r,eff

acts as a weighted average of the air (or

superstrate)
2
and substrate C cdielectric constants
1 with a
ε r,eff ≡ =   where (ε r + 1) < ε r,eff < ε r
proportion
C0  vp  2
determined by the field filling factor (q)
or ε r,eff = 1 + q(ε r − 1) where 0.5 < q < 1
w w
and as ↑ ⇒ q → 1; ↓ ⇒ q → 0.5
d d
(parallel plate case; simple average case)
 Parameters for Microstrip Line
(Single Track)
• Empirical Formulas for ε r,eff assuming w/d >
1.3
– in terms of w/d for application to the dimensions
−.555
ε +
of a pre-fabricated1 ε − 1  d 
ε = r +line
r,eff
r
1 + 10
 
2 2  w

– In terms of ε r and Z0 for finding the necessary

ε r,eff based on a desired Z0
ε r,eff ≅ ε r [0.96 + ε r (0.109 − 0.004ε r )(log 10 (10 + Z 0 ) − 1)]−1
 Parameters for Microstrip Line
(Single Track)
• Characteristic Impedance (Z0):
– Based on the air-filled equivalent microstrip line
Z 0 air
Z0 = where Z 0air may be found
ε r,eff
by curvilinear or other numerical methods

– For w/d < 3.3

(
Z 0 air B 60 ln 4(d / w) + 16(d / w)2 + 2 )
 Example of Parameter
Calculation for Microstrip Line
• Exercise 3 (D14.4, H&B, 7/e, p. )
Given: a 2 mm wide microstrip line is fabricated
on a 1 mm thick substrate of lithium niobate
(ε r = 4.8).
Find: ε , Z0 and vp
r,eff
−.555 −.555
Solution : ε + 1 since
ε − 1  w/d == 2
5.8>3.8   1 
+ 1.3:
d
ε r,eff B r + r 1 + 10  1 + 10   = 3.6
2 2  w 2 2   2 

(
Z 0 air B 60 ln 4(d / w) + 16(d / w) 2 + 2 )
B 60 ln ( 4(1/ 2) + )
16(1/ 2)2 + 2 = 90 Ω

Z 0 air 90 Ω
Z0 = = = 47 Ω
ε r,eff 3.6
 Conclusions

• Types of T-lines such as coax, two-wire,

microstrip lines and other variations have
– relative advantages in certain applications
– a unique construction that determines their circuit
parameters
• Circuit parameters of T-lines depend on LF or HF
operation as indicated by skin depth versus
conductor size; parameters may be found by
calculation or in a handbook
 Conclusions

• While coax has shielding to minimize

interference in low signal applications, it may
be too large and bulky for PCB and
microelectronic circuit applications
• While microstrip lines are easy to fabricate and
compatible with microelectronic systems, they
are analytically complex requiring numerical
methods for accuracy
 Conclusions

• For higher frequency applications,

waveguides (including rectangular or
cylindrical “pipes,” parallel plates,
dielectric slabs and optical fiber types)
become more efficient than T-lines
• The analysis of waveguides becomes a
more advanced task with fully EM field
wave equations
 References and Other
Resources
• Hayt & Buck, Engineering
Electromagnetics, 7/e, McGraw Hill:
New York, 2006.
• Kraus & Fleisch, Electromagnetics with
Applications, 5/e, McGraw Hill: New
York, 1999.