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TRANSDUCERS MEASURING

TEMPERATURE AND
PRESSURE

PRESENTED BY GROUP-12 OF
C.S./I.T. BATCH OF 2008-2009
A SAMPLE OF
TRANSDUCER
MEMBERS OF THE
GROUP
1.VIBHAV VINEET
2.SHREYANSH SUBHAM
3.SAURABH KUNAL
4.SHASHANK SHEKHAR
5.RAKESH RANJAN
CONTENTS

1.TEMPERATURE MEASURING
TRANSDUCERS
2.VIBRATION MEASURING
TRANSDUCERS
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. A TEXTBOOK OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING-B.L.THEREJA
2. BASIC ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING-BIBIN
G.S.
3. WWW.EEE.GSTA.COM
BACKGROUND
INFORMATION
Thermistors are essentially semiconductor devices which
behave as thermal resistors having a high negative
temperature coefficient of resistance. The sensors are
made of sintered ceramics, usually from mixtures of
oxides iron, manganese, nickel, cobalt and copper in the
form of beads or discs. The resistance value at ambient
temperature may range from 100 Ω to 100 kΩ. The
variation
of resistance with temperature is nonlinear,
decreasing
with temperature.
The resistance of a thermistor
at a temperature t,RT can be
expressed by the equation
Rt=Ro.exp(β(To-T)/TTo)
where β is the material constant for
the thermistor (K) and is the standard
reference temperature (K). βTo is
usually about 4000K.
The temperature coefficient
α, can be expressed as,

α=1/Rt.dRt/dT=-β/T2
Note that α is a nonlinear
function of temperature.
The resistance vs. temperature characteristics of
the thermistors, can be linearized by shunting it
with a proper resistor . The value of for a desired
temperature can be Rp

Rp=Rt(β-2Tm)/ (β+2Tm)
Because of its small size, thermistors are
ideally suited for measuring temperature
distributions or gradients. The
measurement of the change in resistance
can be carried out with a standard
Wheatstone bridge.
The Temperature Transducer Facilities

 FIGURE 1

The Temperature
Transducer Facilities
Figure 1 shows the layout of
the temperature transducer
facilities.
The active transducers are
contained within a clean
plastic container which
includes a heater.
In the case of the N.T.C.
thermistors and the
thermocouples, a separate unit is
mounted outside the heated
enclosure.
The I.C. Temperature
Transducer
This is an integrated circuit containing 16 transistors, 9
resistors and 2 capacitors contained in a transistor type
package.
The device reference number is LM 335 and it provides an
output of 10 mV/oK. A measurement of the output voltage
therefore indicates the temperature directly in oK. For
example, at a temperature of 20 oC (293 oK), the output
voltage will be 2.93 V.
The circuit arrangement provided With is shown .
FIGURE 2

A 2-pin socket is provided for the


connection of an external LM 335 unit if


desired.
Note: An LM 335 unit is mounted external to the heated
enclosure and fitted in a heat sink with a type “K”
thermocouple, its output being obtained from the “Ref” socket.

The output from this can be used as an


indication of the ambient temperature
outside the heated enclosure and that from
the “Int” socket in Figure 2indicates the
temperature within the heated enclosure.
The output from the “Ref” socket does not
give an accurate value of the room
ambient temperature when the heater is
in use, due mainly to heat passing along
the baseboard by conduction from the
heater.
An LM 335 remotely mounted or
some other method is
necessary for accurate values of
ambient temperature.
The Platinum R.T.D:
(Resistance Temperature Dependent)
Transducer
The construction of the platinum R.T:D.
transducer is shown in Figure 3,
consisting basically of a thin film of
platinum deposited on a ceramic
substrate and having gold contact
plates at each end that make contact
with the film.
FIGURE 3

FIGURE 3
The platinum film is trimmed with a
laser be am so that the resistance is
100 Ω at 0 oC.

The resistance of the film increases as the temperature
increases, i.e. it has a positive temperature coefficient.
The increase in resistance is linear, the relationship
between resistance change and temperature rise being
0.385 Ω/oC for the unit.

Rt=Ro+0.385t
where is the resistance at
temperature t oC (Rt) and is the
resistance at 0 oC
(Ro ) which is equal to 100 Ω.
Normally, the unit would be connected to a D.C.
supply via a series resistor and the voltage
developed across the transducer is measured.

The current flow through the


transducer will then cause some
self heating, the temperature rise
due to this being of the order of 0.2
oC/mW dissipated in the transducer.
The electrical circuit arrangement of
the unit is shown in Figure 4.
The N.T.C. (Negative Temperature
Coefficient) Thermistor

The construction of the N.T.C.


thermistor is shown in Figure 5,
consisting basically of an element
made from sintered oxides of metals
such as nickel, manganese and cobalt
and with contacts made to each side
of the element.
Figure 5
The resistance of the thermistors provided

with the unit is of the order of 5 kΩ at an


ambient temperature of 20 oC (293 oK).

The relationship between resistance and
temperature is given by the formula
R2=R1.exp(B/T2-B/T1)

where
R1: Resistance at temperature in
T1oK,
R2: Resistance at temperature in
T2oK,
B: Characteristic temperature (=
4350 oK).
Two similar units are provided, one being
mounted inside the heated enclosure, this being
connected to the +5 V supply and designated A.

The other is mounted outside the


heated enclosure, is connected to
the 0 V connection and is
designated B. The circuit
arrangement is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 6
The Type “K” Thermocouple

Temperature Transducer
Figure 6 shows the basic construction of a
thermocouple, consisting of two wires of different
materials joined together at one end.

For the type “K” thermocouple the two materials are


alumel and chromel.
With this arrangement, when the ends that are joined
together are heated, an output voltage is obtained
between the other two ends.
The ends that are joined together are referred to as the
“hot” junction and the other ends are referred to as the
“cold” junction.
The magnitude of the output voltage depends on
the temperature difference between the “hot”
and “cold” junctions and on the materials used.

For the type “K” thermocouple the output


voltage is fairly linear over the
temperature range 0-100 oC and of
magnitude 40.28 μV/oC difference
between the “hot” and “cold” junctions.
Two thermocouples are provided with the unit,
one being mounted within the heated enclosure,
this being the active unit which will have its
“hot” and “cold” junctions at different
temperatures in operation.

The other unit is mounted outside the heated


enclosure and is incorporated in a heat sink with an
LM 335 I.C. temperature transducer so that the
temperature of the “cold” junction of the active
thermocouple can be measured. This second
thermocouple is connected in series with the first with
the wires of the same material connected together.
This ensures that the connections to the output circuit
are made from the same material and thus eliminates
the possibility of an e.m.f. being introduced into the
circuit by connections between different materials.
Figure 7

The second thermocouple does not contribute to the output voltage because

its “hot” and “cold” junctions are maintained at the same temperature.
The circuit arrangement is as shown in Figure 7.


Due to low voltage output, the output requires amplification, an amplification
factor of 248 giving an output of 10 mV/oC.
During operation, the temperature of the “cold” junction varies, due mainly
to heat conduction from the heater along the baseboard and the junction is in
effect “floating”. This is a common occurrence with thermocouple
installations where the thermocouple leads are short.

To overcome the problem, extra leads of the


same material or different mterials having the
same thermoelectric properties are used to
extend the “cold” junction to a point where a
steady temperature can be maintained. These
cables are referred to as “Compensating cables”.
 
Vibration
Measurements
Measurements should be made to produce the data
needed to draw meaningful conclusions from the
system under test. These data can be used to minimize
or eliminate the vibration and thus the resultant noise.
There are also examples where the noise is not the
controlling parameter, but rather the quality of the
product produced by the system. For example, in
process control equipment, excessive vibration can
damage the product, limit pro-cessing speeds, or even
cause catastrophic machine failure.
Figure 9 Basic Vibration
Measurement System

 The basic measurement system used for diagnostic


analyses of vibrations consists of the three system
components shown in Figure 9.
(i) Transducers
In general, the transducers employed in vibration analyses convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy; that is, they produce an
electrical signal which is a function of mechanical vibration. In the
following section, both velocity pickups and accelerometers mounted
or attached to the vibrating surface will be studied.

(a) Velocity Pickups


The electrical output signal of a velocity pickup is proportional to the velocity
of the vibrating mechanism. Since the velocity of a vibrating mechanism is
cyclic in nature, the sensitivity of the pickup is expressed in peak milli-
volts/cm/s and thus is a measure of the voltage produced at the point of
maximum velocity. The devices have very low natural frequencies and are
designed to measure vibration frequencies that are greater than the natural
frequency of the pickup.
Velocity pickups can be mounted in a number of ways; for example,
they can be stud-mounted or held magnetically to the vibrating
surface. However, the mounting technique can vastly affect the
pickup's performance. For example, the stud-mounting technique
shown in Figure 10(a), in which the pickup is mounted flush with the
surface and silicone grease is applied to the contact surfaces, is a
good reliable method.

The magnetically mounted pick-up, as shown in Figure


10(b), on the other hand, in general has a smaller
usable frequency range than the stud-mounted pickup.
In addition, it is important to note that the magnetic
mount, which has both mass and spring like properties,
is located between the velocity pickup and the vibrating
surface and thus will affect the measurements. This
mounting technique is viable, but caution must be
employed when it is used.
Figure 10 Two Transducer Mounting Technique

 (a) Stud-Mount Pickup; (b) Magnetically Held


Velocity Pickup
The velocity pickup is a useful transducer because it is sensitive and
yet rugged enough to withstand extreme industrial environments. In
addition, velocity is perhaps the most frequently employed measure
of vibration severity. However, the device is relatively large and
bulky, is adversely affected by magnetic fields generated by large ac
machines or ac current carrying cables, and has somewhat limited
amplitude and frequency characteristic.

(b) Accelerometers
The accelerometer generates an output signal that is proportional to the
acceleration of the vibrating mechanism. This device is, perhaps, preferred
over the velocity pickup, for a number of reasons. For example,
accelerometers have good sensitivity characteristics and a wide useful
frequency range; they are small in size and light in weight and thus are
capable of measuring the vibration at a specific point without, in general,
loading the vibrating structure.
In addition, the devices can be used easily with electronic integrating
networks to obtain a voltage proportional to velocity or displacement.
However, the accelerometer mounting, the interconnection cable,
and the instrumentation connections are critical factors in
measurements employing an accelerometer. The general comments
made earlier concerning the mounting of a velocity pickup also apply
to accelerometers.

Some additional suggestions for eliminating measurement


errors when employing accelerometers for vibration
measurements are shown in Figure 11. Note that the
accelerometer mounting employs an isolation stud and an
isolation washer. This is done so that the measurement system
can be grounded at only one point, preferably at the analyzer.
An additional ground at the accelerometer will provide a closed
(ground) loop which may induce a noise signal that affects the
accelerometer output. The sealing compound applied at the
cable entry into the accelerometer protects the system from
errors caused by moisture.
Figure 11 Mounting Technique for
Eliminating Selected Measurement Errors

The cable itself should be glued or strapped to the vibrating
mechanism immediately upon leaving the accelerometer, and the
other end of the cable, which is connected to the preamplifier, should
leave the mechanism under test at a point of minimum vibration. This
procedure will eliminate or at least minimize cable noise caused by
dynamic bending, compression, or tension in the cable.

(i) Preamplifiers
The second element in the vibration measurement
system is the preamplifier. This device, which may
consist of one or more stages, serves two very
useful purposes: it amplifies the vibration pickup
signal, which is in general very weak, and it acts as
an impedance transformer or isolation device
Recall that the manufacturer provides both charge and voltage
sensitivities for accelerometers. Likewise, the preamplifier may be
designed as a voltage amplifier in which the output voltage is
proportional to the input voltage, or a charge amplifier in which the
output voltage is proportional to the input charge. The difference
between these two types of preamplifiers is important for a number
of reasons.

For example, changes in cable length (i.e., cable capacitance)


between the accelerometer and preamplifier are negligible when a
charge amplifier is employed. When a voltage amplifier is used
however, the system is very sensitive to changes in cable
capacitance. In addition, because the input resistance of a voltage
amplifier cannot in general be neglected, the very low frequency
response of the system may be affected. Voltage amplifiers, on the
other hand, are often less expensive and more reliable because they
contain fewer components and thus are easier to construct.
(iii) Processing and display equipment
The instruments used for the processing and display of
vibration data are, with minor modifications, the same as
those described earlier for noise analyses. The processing
equipment is typically some type of spectrum analyzer.

The analyzer may range from a very simple device which


yields, for example, the rms value of the vibration
displacement, to one that yields an essentially instantaneous
analysis of the entire vibration frequency spectrum. As
discussed earlier, these analyzers, which are perhaps the
most valuable tool in a vibration study, are typically either a
constant-bandwidth or constant-percentage-bandwidth type
of device. They normally come equipped with some form of
graphical display, such as a cathode ray tube, which provides
detailed frequency data.
 VIBRATION

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