Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 1

Computer Architecture
Chapter 1
Fundamentals

Prof. Jerry Breecher
CSCI 240
Fall 2003
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 2
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Task of a Computer Designer
1.3 Technology and Computer Usage Trends
1.4 Cost and Trends in Cost
1.5 Measuring and Reporting Performance
1.6 Quantitative Principles of Computer Design
1.7 Putting It All Together: The Concept of Memory Hierarchy
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 3
Art and
Architecture
Whats the difference
between Art and
Architecture?
Lyonel Feininger,
Marktkirche in Halle
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 4
Art and Architecture
Whats the difference between Art and Architecture?
Notre Dame
de Paris
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 5
Whats Computer Architecture?
The attributes of a [computing] system as seen by the
programmer, i.e., the conceptual structure and functional
behavior, as distinct from the organization of the data
flows and controls the logic design, and the physical
implementation.
Amdahl, Blaaw, and Brooks, 1964
SOFTWARE
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 6
Whats Computer Architecture?
1950s to 1960s: Computer Architecture Course
Computer Arithmetic.
1970s to mid 1980s: Computer Architecture Course
Instruction Set Design, especially ISA appropriate for
compilers. (What well do in Chapter 2)
1990s to 2000s: Computer Architecture Course
Design of CPU, memory system, I/O system,
Multiprocessors. (All evolving at a tremendous rate!)
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 7
The Task of a
Computer Designer
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Task of a Computer
Designer
1.3 Technology and Computer
Usage Trends
1.4 Cost and Trends in Cost
1.5 Measuring and Reporting
Performance
1.6 Quantitative Principles of
Computer Design
1.7 Putting It All Together: The
Concept of Memory
Hierarchy
Evaluate Existing
Systems for
Bottlenecks
Simulate New
Designs and
Organizations
Implement Next
Generation System
Technology
Trends
Benchmarks
Workloads
Implementation
Complexity
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 8
Technology and
Computer Usage Trends
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Task of a Computer Designer
1.3 Technology and Computer Usage
Trends
1.4 Cost and Trends in Cost
1.5 Measuring and Reporting Performance
1.6 Quantitative Principles of Computer
Design
1.7 Putting It All Together: The Concept of
Memory Hierarchy
Similarly, Computer Architecture is about
working within constraints:
What will the market buy?
Cost/Performance
Tradeoffs in materials and processes
When building a Cathedral numerous
very practical considerations need to
be taken into account:
available materials
worker skills
willingness of the client to pay the
price.
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 9
Trends
Gordon Moore (Founder of Intel) observed in 1965 that the number of
transistors that could be crammed on a chip doubles every year.
This has CONTINUED to be true since then.
Transistors Per Chip
1.E+03
1.E+04
1.E+05
1.E+06
1.E+07
1.E+08
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
4004
Power PC 601 486
386
80286
8086
Pentium
Pentium Pro
Pentium II
Power PC G3
Pentium 3
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 10
Trends
Processor performance, as measured by the SPEC benchmark has
also risen dramatically.
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
8
7
8
8
8
9
9
0
9
1
9
2
9
3
9
4
9
5
9
6
9
7
9
8
9
9
2
0
0
0
DEC Alpha 21264/600
DEC Alpha 5/500
DEC Alpha 4/266
DEC
AXP/
500
Sun
-4/
260
IBM
RS/
6000
MIPS
M
2000
Alpha 6/833
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 11
Trends
Memory Capacity (and Cost) have changed dramatically in the last 20
years.
size
Year
B
i
t
s
1000
10000
100000
1000000
10000000
100000000
1000000000
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
year size(Mb) cyc time
1980 0.0625 250 ns
1983 0.25 220 ns
1986 1 190 ns
1989 4 165 ns
1992 16 145 ns
1996 64 120 ns
2000 256 100 ns
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 12
Trends
Based on SPEED, the CPU has increased dramatically, but memory
and disk have increased only a little. This has led to dramatic
changed in architecture, Operating Systems, and Programming
practices.
Capacity Speed (latency)
Logic 2x in 3 years 2x in 3 years
DRAM 4x in 3 years 2x in 10 years
Disk 4x in 3 years 2x in 10 years
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 13
Measuring And
Reporting Performance
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Task of a Computer Designer
1.3 Technology and Computer Usage
Trends
1.4 Cost and Trends in Cost
1.5 Measuring and Reporting Performance
1.6 Quantitative Principles of Computer
Design
1.7 Putting It All Together: The Concept of
Memory Hierarchy
This section talks about:

1. Metrics how do we describe
in a numerical way the
performance of a computer?

2. What tools do we use to find
those metrics?
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 14
Metrics
Time to run the task (ExTime)
Execution time, response time, latency
Tasks per day, hour, week, sec, ns
(Performance)
Throughput, bandwidth
Plane
Boeing 747
BAD/Sud
Concodre
Speed
610 mph
1350 mph
DC to Paris
6.5 hours
3 hours
Passengers
470
132
Throughput
(pmph)
286,700
178,200
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 15
Metrics - Comparisons
"X is n times faster than Y" means

ExTime(Y) Performance(X)
--------- = ---------------
ExTime(X) Performance(Y)


Speed of Concorde vs. Boeing 747

Throughput of Boeing 747 vs. Concorde
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 16
Metrics - Comparisons
Pat has developed a new product, "rabbit" about which she wishes to determine
performance. There is special interest in comparing the new product, rabbit to the
old product, turtle, since the product was rewritten for performance reasons. (Pat
had used Performance Engineering techniques and thus knew that rabbit was
"about twice as fast" as turtle.) The measurements showed:

Performance Comparisons

Product Transactions / second Seconds/ transaction Seconds to process transaction
Turtle 30 0.0333 3
Rabbit 60 0.0166 1

Which of the following statements reflect the performance comparison of rabbit and
turtle?

o Rabbit is 100% faster than turtle.
o Rabbit is twice as fast as turtle.
o Rabbit takes 1/2 as long as turtle.
o Rabbit takes 1/3 as long as turtle.
o Rabbit takes 100% less time than turtle.
o Rabbit takes 200% less time than turtle.
o Turtle is 50% as fast as rabbit.
o Turtle is 50% slower than rabbit.
o Turtle takes 200% longer than rabbit.
o Turtle takes 300% longer than rabbit.
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 17
Metrics - Throughput
Compiler
Programming
Language
Application
Datapath
Control
Transistors Wires Pins
ISA
Function Units
(millions) of Instructions per second: MIPS
(millions) of (FP) operations per second: MFLOP/s
Cycles per second (clock rate)
Megabytes per second
Answers per month
Operations per second
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 18
Methods For Predicting
Performance
Benchmarks, Traces, Mixes
Hardware: Cost, delay, area, power estimation
Simulation (many levels)
ISA, RT, Gate, Circuit
Queuing Theory
Rules of Thumb
Fundamental Laws/Principles
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 19
Benchmarks
First Round 1989
10 programs yielding a single number (SPECmarks)
Second Round 1992
SPECInt92 (6 integer programs) and SPECfp92 (14 floating point programs)
Compiler Flags unlimited. March 93 of DEC 4000 Model 610:
spice: unix.c:/def=(sysv,has_bcopy,bcopy(a,b,c)=
memcpy(b,a,c)
wave5: /ali=(all,dcom=nat)/ag=a/ur=4/ur=200
nasa7: /norecu/ag=a/ur=4/ur2=200/lc=blas
Third Round 1995
new set of programs: SPECint95 (8 integer programs) and SPECfp95 (10 floating
point)
benchmarks useful for 3 years
Single flag setting for all programs: SPECint_base95, SPECfp_base95
SPEC: System Performance Evaluation
Cooperative
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 20
Benchmarks
CINT2000 (Integer Component of SPEC CPU2000):
Program Language What Is It
164.gzip C Compression
175.vpr C FPGA Circuit Placement and Routing
176.gcc C C Programming Language Compiler
181.mcf C Combinatorial Optimization
186.crafty C Game Playing: Chess
197.parser C Word Processing
252.eon C++ Computer Visualization
253.perlbmk C PERL Programming Language
254.gap C Group Theory, Interpreter
255.vortex C Object-oriented Database
256.bzip2 C Compression
300.twolf C Place and Route Simulator
http://www.spec.org/osg/cpu2000/CINT2000/
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 21
Benchmarks
CFP2000 (Floating Point Component of SPEC
CPU2000):
Program Language What Is It
168.wupwise Fortran 77 Physics / Quantum Chromodynamics
171.swim Fortran 77 Shallow Water Modeling
172.mgrid Fortran 77 Multi-grid Solver: 3D Potential Field
173.applu Fortran 77 Parabolic / Elliptic Differential Equations
177.mesa C 3-D Graphics Library
178.galgel Fortran 90 Computational Fluid Dynamics
179.art C Image Recognition / Neural Networks
183.equake C Seismic Wave Propagation Simulation
187.facerec Fortran 90 Image Processing: Face Recognition
188.ammp C Computational Chemistry
189.lucas Fortran 90 Number Theory / Primality Testing
191.fma3d Fortran 90 Finite-element Crash Simulation
200.sixtrack Fortran 77 High Energy Physics Accelerator Design
301.apsi Fortran 77 Meteorology: Pollutant Distribution
http://www.spec.org/osg/cpu2000/CFP2000/
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 22
Benchmarks
Sample Results For
SpecINT2000

Base Base Base Peak Peak Peak
Benchmarks Ref Time Run Time Ratio Ref Time Run Time Ratio
164.gzip 1400 277 505* 1400 270 518*
175.vpr 1400 419 334* 1400 417 336*
176.gcc 1100 275 399* 1100 272 405*
181.mcf 1800 621 290* 1800 619 291*
186.crafty 1000 191 522* 1000 191 523*
197.parser 1800 500 360* 1800 499 361*
252.eon 1300 267 486* 1300 267 486*
253.perlbmk 1800 302 596* 1800 302 596*
254.gap 1100 249 442* 1100 248 443*
255.vortex 1900 268 710* 1900 264 719*
256.bzip2 1500 389 386* 1500 375 400*
300.twolf 3000 784 382* 3000 776 387*
SPECint_base2000 438
SPECint2000 442
http://www.spec.org/osg/cpu2000/results/res2000q3/cpu2000-20000718-00168.asc
Intel OR840(1 GHz
Pentium III processor)
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 23
Benchmarks
Performance Evaluation

For better or worse, benchmarks shape a field
Good products created when have:
Good benchmarks
Good ways to summarize performance
Given sales is a function in part of performance relative to
competition, investment in improving product as reported by
performance summary
If benchmarks/summary inadequate, then choose between
improving product for real programs vs. improving product to get
more sales;
Sales almost always wins!
Execution time is the measure of computer performance!
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 24
Benchmarks
Management would like to have one number.
Technical people want more:
1. They want to have evidence of reproducibility there should be enough
information so that you or someone else can repeat the experiment.
2. There should be consistency when doing the measurements multiple
times.
How to Summarize Performance
How would you report these results?
Computer A Computer B Computer C
Program P1 (secs) 1 10 20
Program P2 (secs) 1000 100 20
Total Time (secs) 1001 110 40
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 25
Quantitative Principles
of Computer Design
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Task of a Computer Designer
1.3 Technology and Computer Usage
Trends
1.4 Cost and Trends in Cost
1.5 Measuring and Reporting Performance
1.6 Quantitative Principles of Computer
Design
1.7 Putting It All Together: The Concept of
Memory Hierarchy
Make the common case fast.
Amdahls Law:
Relates total speedup of a
system to the speedup of some
portion of that system.
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 26
Amdahl's Law
Suppose that enhancement E accelerates a fraction F
of the task by a factor S, and the remainder of the
task is unaffected
Quantitative
Design
t Enhancemen Without e Performanc
t Enhancemen With e Performanc
t Enhancemen With Time Execution
t Enhancemen Without Time Execution
E Speedup
_ _
_ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
) (
Speedup due to enhancement E:
This fraction enhanced
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 27
ExTime
new
= ExTime
old
x (1 - Fraction
enhanced
) + Fraction
enhanced
Speedup
overall
=
ExTime
old


ExTime
new
Speedup
enhanced
=
1
(1 - Fraction
enhanced
) + Fraction
enhanced
Speedup
enhanced
Quantitative
Design
This fraction enhanced
ExTime
old
ExTime
new
Amdahl's Law
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 28
Amdahl's Law
Floating point instructions improved to run 2X; but only
10% of actual instructions are FP
Speedup
overall
=
1
0.95
= 1.053
ExTime
new
= ExTime
old
x (0.9 + .1/2) = 0.95 x ExTime
old
Quantitative
Design
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 29
Quantitative
Design
Instruction Frequency
Invest Resources where time is Spent!
CPI = (CPU Time * Clock Rate) / Instruction Count
= Cycles / Instruction Count

n
i
i i
I CPI Time Cycle Time CPU
1
* * _ _

n
i
i i
F CPI CPI
1
*
where
Count n Instructio
I
i
i
F
_

Number of
instructions of
type I.
Cycles Per
Instruction
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 30
Quantitative
Design
Base Machine (Reg / Reg)
Op Freq Cycles CPI(i) (% Time)
ALU 50% 1 .5 (33%)
Load 20% 2 .4 (27%)
Store 10% 2 .2 (13%)
Branch 20% 2 .4 (27%)
Total CPI 1.5
Suppose we have a machine where we can count the frequency with which
instructions are executed. We also know how many cycles it takes for
each instruction type.
Cycles Per
Instruction
How do we get CPI(I)?
How do we get %time?
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 31
Quantitative
Design
Locality of
Reference
Programs access a relatively small portion of the address space at
any instant of time.

There are two different types of locality:

Temporal Locality (locality in time): If an item is referenced, it will
tend to be referenced again soon (loops, reuse, etc.)

Spatial Locality (locality in space/location): If an item is referenced,
items whose addresses are close by tend to be referenced soon
(straight line code, array access, etc.)

Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 32
The Concept of
Memory Hierarchy
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Task of a Computer Designer
1.3 Technology and Computer Usage
Trends
1.4 Cost and Trends in Cost
1.5 Measuring and Reporting Performance
1.6 Quantitative Principles of Computer
Design
1.7 Putting It All Together: The Concept of
Memory Hierarchy
Fast memory is expensive.

Slow memory is cheap.

The goal is to minimize the
price/performance for a
particular price point.
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 33
Memory Hierarchy
Registers
Level 1
cache
Level 2
Cache
Memory Disk
Typical
Size
4 - 64 <16K bytes <2 Mbytes <16
Gigabytes
> 5
Gigabytes
Access
Time
1 nsec 3 nsec 15 nsec 150 nsec 5,000,000
nsec
Bandwidth
(in MB/sec)
10,000
50,000
2000 - 5000 500 - 1000 500 - 1000 100
Managed
By
Compiler Hardware Hardware OS OS/User
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 34
Memory Hierarchy
Hit: data appears in some block in the upper level (example:
Block X)
Hit Rate: the fraction of memory access found in the upper level
Hit Time: Time to access the upper level which consists of
RAM access time + Time to determine hit/miss
Miss: data needs to be retrieve from a block in the lower level
(Block Y)
Miss Rate = 1 - (Hit Rate)
Miss Penalty: Time to replace a block in the upper level +
Time to deliver the block the processor
Hit Time << Miss Penalty (500 instructions on 21264!)
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 35
Memory Hierarchy
Registers
Level 1
cache
Level 2
Cache
Memory Disk
What is the cost of executing a program if:
Stores are free (theres a write pipe)
Loads are 20% of all instructions
80% of loads hit (are found) in the Level 1 cache
97 of loads hit in the Level 2 cache.
Chapter 1 - Fundamentals 36
Wrap Up
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Task of a Computer Designer
1.3 Technology and Computer Usage Trends
1.4 Cost and Trends in Cost
1.5 Measuring and Reporting Performance
1.6 Quantitative Principles of Computer Design
1.7 Putting It All Together: The Concept of Memory Hierarchy