Dr.S.

Sreedhar Reddy
Assistant Professor
Fluid Mechanics in everyday life

In this way, the air and the water of rivers and seas are always
moving.

Such a movement of gas or liquid (collectively called fluid) is
called the flow, and the study of this is fluid mechanics.
Units and Dimensions
All physical quantities are given by a few fundamental quantities or their combinations.
The units of such fundamental quantities are called base units, combinations of them
being called derived units.
The system in which lengths, mass and time are adopted as the basic quantities, and
from which the units of other quantities are derived, is called the absolute system of
units.
System of Units
MKS system of units
This is the system of units where the meter (m) is used for the unit of length, kilogram
(kg) for the unit of mass, and second (s) for the unit of time as the base units.

CGS system of units
This is the system of units where the centimeter (cm) is used for length, gram (g) for
mass, and second (s) for time as the base units.

International system of units (SI)
SI, the abbreviation of La System International dUnites, is the system developed from
the MKS system of units.
It is a consistent and reasonable system of units which makes it a rule to adopt only one
unit for each of the various quantities used in such fields as science, education and
industry.

There are seven fundamental SI units, namely: meter (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for
mass, second (s) for time, ampere (A) for electric current, Kelvin (K) for thermodynamic
temperature, mole (mol) for mass quantity and candela (cd) for intensity of light.

Density, Specific gravity and Specific Volume
Density
The mass per unit volume of material is called the density, which
is generally expressed by the symbol p.

The density of a gas changes according to the pressure, but that
of a liquid may be considered unchangeable in general.

The units of density are kg/m
3
(SI). The density of water at 4C
and 1 atm is 1000 kg/m
3
.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The ratio of the density of a material p to the density of water p
w

is called the specific gravity, which is expressed by the symbol s:
The reciprocal of density, i.e. the volume per unit mass, is called the specific volume,
which is generally expressed by the symbol u:
Specific Weight
Specific weight of a fluid,
Definition: weight of the fluid per unit volume
Arising from the existence of a gravitational force
The relationship and g can be found using the following:

Since = m/
therefore = g (1.3)

Units: N/m
3

Typical values:
Water = 9814 N/m
3
; Air = 12.07 N/m
3
Example 1.2

A reservoir of oil has a mass of 825 kg. The
reservoir has a volume of 0.917 m
3
. Compute
the density, specific weight, and specific
gravity of the oil.
Solution:


3
/ 900
917 . 0
825
m kg
m
volume
mass
oil
= =

= =
3
oil
m / N 8829 81 . 9 x 900 g
mg
volume
weight
= = =

= =
9 . 0
998
900
@
= = =
STP w
oil
oil
SG

1.6 Viscosity
Viscosity, , is a measure of resistance to
fluid flow as a result of intermolecular
cohesion. In other words, viscosity can be
seen as internal friction to fluid motion
which can then lead to energy loss.
Fluid with a high viscosity such as syrup
deforms more slowly than fluid with a low
viscosity such as water. The viscosity is
also known as dynamic viscosity.
Units: N.s/m
2
or kg/m/s
Typical values:
Water = 1.14x10-3 kg/m/s; Air = 1.78x10-5 kg/m/s
Example:
Air
Water
Oil
Gasoline
Alcohol
Kerosene
Benzene
Glycerine
Fluid
Newtons law
of viscosity
Newtonian fluids
obey refer
Newtons law of viscosity is given by;
dy
du
= t
(1.1)
The viscosity is a function only of the condition of the fluid, particularly its
temperature.
The magnitude of the velocity gradient (du/dy) has no effect on the magnitude of .
t = shear stress
= viscosity of fluid
du/dy = shear rate, rate of strain or velocity gradient
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian
Fluid
Fluid Newtons law
of viscosity
Non- Newtonian
fluids
Do not obey
The viscosity of the non-Newtonian fluid is dependent on the
velocity gradient as well as the condition of the fluid.

Newtonian Fluids
a linear relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient (rate
of shear),
the slope is constant
the viscosity is constant

non-Newtonian fluids
slope of the curves for non-Newtonian fluids varies
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian
Fluid


If the gradient m is constant, the fluid is termed as Newtonian fluid.
Otherwise, it is known as non-Newtonian fluid. Fig. 1.5 shows
several Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.
UNITS OF VISCOCITY
Pressure
When fluid is at rest, at any point of a supporting surface , the force exerted by a fluid is
normal to the surface.
This normal force exerted by a fluid at a point per unit area of the surface is called
Pressure Intensity or Unit Pressure or Specific Pressure or Hydrostatic Pressure.
In this case, p is the pressure and P is the pressure force.
The unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa), but it is also expressed in bars or meters of
water column (mH
2
O).
Pressure of fluid at rest
In general, in a fluid at rest the pressure varies according to the depth.
When the base point is set at Z
o
below the upper surface of liquid as
shown in figure, and P
o
is the pressure acting on that surface, then P = P
o

when Z = Z
o
, so
Thus it is found that the pressure inside a liquid increases in proportion
to the depth.
Example:01
What is the water pressure on the sea bottom at a depth of 6500m? The specific
gravity of sea water is assumed to be 1.03.
Example :02
What depth of oil of specific gravity 0.9 will produce a pressure intensity of 9
Kg/cm
2
?
Example :03
Convert a pressure head of 40 m 0f oil to corresponding head of water if the
specific gravity of oil is 0.8?


Absolute pressure and gauge pressure
There are two methods used to express the pressure: one is based on the perfect
vacuum and the other on the atmospheric pressure. The former is called the absolute
pressure and the latter is called the gauge pressure. Then,
For example, in the case of measuring the pressure of liquid flowing inside a pipe, the
pressure p can be obtained by measuring the height of liquid H coming upwards into a
manometer made to stand upright as shown in figure.
Differential Manometer or U-tube manometer
When the pressure P is large, this is inconvenient because H is too high.
So a U-tube manometer, as shown in following figure, containing a high-density
liquid such as mercury is used.

In this case, when the density is p,
In the case of measuring the pressure difference between two pipes in both of
which a liquid of density p flows, a differential manometer as shown in figure is
used.
Fig. Differential manometer
In the case of Fig. a, where the differential pressure of the liquid is small, measurements
are made by filling the upper section of the meter with a liquid whose density is less than
that of the liquid to be measured, or with a gas. Thus
Figure (b) shows the case when the differential pressure is large. This time, a liquid
column of a larger density than the measuring fluid is used.
Example:
Obtain the pressure p at point A in Figs (a), (b) and (c).
Example:
Obtain the pressure difference P
1
- P
2
in Figs (a) and (b).
Buoyancy
1. Fluid pressure acts all over the wetted surface of a body floating in a fluid, and the
resultant pressure acts in a vertical upward direction. This force is called buoyancy.
2. The buoyancy of air is small compared with the gravitational force of the immersed
body, so it is normally ignored.
Cube in liquid
Suppose that a cube is located in a liquid of density p as shown in figure.
The pressure acting on the cube due to the liquid in the horizontal direction is balanced
right and left.
For the vertical direction, where the atmospheric pressure is P
o
,
The force F
l
acting on the upper surface A is expressed by the following equation:
The force F
2
acting on the lower surface is:
When the volume of the body in the liquid is V, the resultant force F from the pressure
acting on the whole surface of the body is
From this equation, the body in the liquid experiences a buoyancy equal
to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body. This result is known as
Archimedes principle.
The centre of gravity of the displaced liquid is called centre of buoyancy
and is the point of action of the buoyancy force.
Example:01
An ice berg of specific weight 900 Kg/m
3
floats in sea water of specific weight 1025
Kg/m
3.
Find the ratio of the volume of the iceberg above the sea water level to its total
volume?
Example :02
A cubical body of side 0.25 m and specific gravity 2.5 is immersed in water. Find the
least force required to lift the body?

Archimedes's Principle
1. An object is subject to an upward force when it is immersed in liquid. The force is
equal to the weight of the liquid displaced.
2. The apparent weight of a block of aluminum (1) immersed in water is reduced by an
amount equal to the weight of water displaced.
3. If a block of wood (2) is completely immersed in water, the upward force is greater
than the weight of the wood. (Wood is less dense than water, so the weight of the
block of wood is less than that of the same volume of water.)
4. So the block rises and partly emerges to displace less water until the upward force
exactly equals the weight of the block.

Fig. Stability of a ship
Figure shows a ship of weight W floating in the water with an inclination of small angle .
The location of the centroid G does not change with the inclination of the ship.
But since the centre of buoyancy C moves to the new point C, a couple of forces Ws =
Fs is produced and this couple restores the ships position to stability.
The intersecting point M on the vertical line passing through the centre of buoyancy C
(action line of the buoyancy F) and the centre line of the ship is called the metacentre,
and GM is called the metacentric height.
If M is located higher than G, the restoring force acts to stabilize the ship, but if M is
located lower than G, the couple of forces acts to increase the roll of the ship and so
make the ship unstable.

Fundamentals of flow
1. A flow whose flow state expressed by velocity, pressure, density, etc., at any
position, does not change with time, is called a steady flow.
2. On the other hand, a flow whose flow state does change with time is called an
unsteady flow.
Smoke from a chimney
On a calm day with no wind, smoke ascending from a chimney looks like a single line as
shown in figure (a).
However, when the wind is strong, the smoke is disturbed and swirls as shown in figure
(b) or diffuses into the peripheral air.
One man who systematically studied such states of flow was Osborne Reynolds.

Reynolds used the device shown in figure.
Colored liquid was led to the entrance of a glass tube.
Figure: Reynolds' experiment
As the valve was gradually opened by the handle, the colored liquid flowed, as shown in
figure, like a piece of thread without mixing with peripheral water.
When the flow velocity of water in the tube reached a certain value, as shown in figure
that the line of colored liquid suddenly became turbulent on mingling with the peripheral
water.
The former flow is called the laminar flow, the latter flow the turbulent flow, and the flow
velocity at the time when the laminar flow had turned to turbulent flow the critical
velocity.
Laminar Flow
1. Laminar flow is a type of flow in which the fluid particles move in layers.
2. There is no transportation of fluid particles from one layer to another.
3. The fluid particles in any layer move along well defined paths or stream lines.
Turbulent Flow
1. Turbulent flow is the most common type of flow that occurs in nature.
2. There is a general mixing up of the fluid particles in motion.
3. There is continuous collision between fluid particles involving transference of
momentum between them

Whenever water is allowed to flow at a low velocity by opening the tap a little,
the water flows out smoothly with its surface in the laminar state.
But as the tap is gradually opened to let the water velocity increase, the flow
becomes turbulent and opaque with a rough surface.
Compressible and Incompressible Flow
1. In general, liquid is called an incompressible fluid, and gas a compressible fluid.
Nevertheless, even in the case of a liquid it becomes necessary to take
compressibility into account whenever the liquid is highly pressurized, such as oil in a
hydraulic machine.
2. Similarly, even in the case of a gas, the compressibility may be disregarded
whenever the change in pressure is small.
Rotational and Irrotational flows
1. As fluids moves the fluid particles may be subjected to a rotatory displacements.
Suppose a particle which is moving along a stream line rotates about its own axis
also then the particle is said to have a rotational motion.
2. If the particles as it moves along the stream lines does not rotate about its own axis
the particle is said to have irrotational motion.
Irrotational flow
Rotational flow
Calculate Reynolds' Number and
decide what type of flow is this?
Example: Lubricating Oil at a velocity of
1 m/s (average) flows through a pipe of
100 mm ID. Determine whether the flow
is laminar or turbulent.


Introduction
20% of worlds electrical energy
demand
25-50% of energy usage in some
industries
Used for
Domestic, commercial, industrial and
agricultural services
Municipal water and wastewater services
What are Pumping Systems
UNEP 2006
Introduction
Objective of pumping system
What are Pumping Systems
(US DOE, 2001)
Transfer liquid
from source to
destination
Circulate liquid
around a system
UNEP 2006
Introduction
Main pump components
Pumps
Prime movers: electric motors, diesel engines,
air system
Piping to carry fluid
Valves to control flow in system
Other fittings, control, instrumentation
End-use equipment
Heat exchangers, tanks, hydraulic machines
What are Pumping Systems

UNEP 2006
Introduction
Head
Resistance of the system
Two types: static and friction

Static head
Difference in height between
source and destination
Independent of flow
Pumping System Characteristics
destination
source
Stati
c
head
Static
head
Flow

UNEP 2006
Introduction
Static head consists of
Static suction head (hS): lifting liquid relative to
pump center line
Static discharge head (hD) vertical distance
between centerline and liquid surface in
destination tank
Static head at certain pressure
Pumping System Characteristics
Head (in feet) = Pressure (psi) X 2.31
Specific gravity

UNEP 2006
Introduction
Friction head
Resistance to flow in pipe and fittings
Depends on size, pipes, pipe fittings, flow
rate, nature of liquid
Proportional to square of flow rate
Closed loop system
only has friction head
(no static head)
Pumping System Characteristics
Friction
head
Flow

UNEP 2006
Introduction
In most cases:
Total head = Static head + friction head
Pumping System Characteristics
System
head
Flow
Static head
Friction
head
System
curve
System
head
Flow
Static head
Friction
head
System
curve

UNEP 2006
Introduction
Pump performance curve
Relationship between
head and flow
Flow increase
System resistance increases
Head increases
Flow decreases to zero
Zero flow rate: risk of
pump burnout
Pumping System Characteristics
Head
Flow
Performance curve for
centrifugal pump

UNEP 2006
Introduction
Pump operating point
Pumping System Characteristics
Duty point: rate
of flow at certain
head
Pump operating
point:
intersection of
pump curve and
system curve
Flow
Head
Static
head
Pump performance
curve
System
curve
Pump
operating
point

UNEP 2006
Introduction
Pump suction performance (NPSH)
Cavitation or vaporization: bubbles inside pump
If vapor bubbles collapse
Erosion of vane surfaces
Increased noise and vibration
Choking of impeller passages
Net Positive Suction Head
NPSH Available: how much pump suction
exceeds liquid vapor pressure
NPSH Required: pump suction needed to avoid
cavitation
Pumping System Characteristics

UNEP 2006
Training Agenda: Pumps
Introduction
Type of pumps
Assessment of pumps
Energy efficiency opportunities

UNEP 2006
Type of Pumps
Classified by operating principle
Pump Classification
Dynamic
Positive
Displacement
Centrifugal Special effect Rotary Reciprocating
Internal
gear
External
gear
Lobe
Slide
vane
Others (e.g.
Impulse, Buoyancy)
Pumps
Dynamic
Positive
Displacement
Centrifugal Special effect Rotary Reciprocating
Internal
gear
External
gear
Lobe
Slide
vane
Others (e.g.
Impulse, Buoyancy)
Pumps
Storm Water Runoff
Where Does Storm Water Go?
Absorbed by the ground/vegetation
Runoff
Waterway
Street
Neighbor
Detained on site
Detention/retention pond
Underground storage
Site Development
Includes improvements or changes to the site
Buildings
Pavement
Landscaping
Grading
Typically, development increases runoff and decreases
absorption of storm water
Storm Water Management
Regulations have evolved in order to
Protect the environment
Water quality
Sedimentation (grading and erosion control)
Protect property
Reduce site runoff
Reduce impact on storm drainage systems
Watershed Characteristics Affecting Runoff
Rainfall intensity
Soil type
Slope/topography
Soil condition (compactness)
Vegetation

Storm Water Management
Many regulations dictate that the post-development
runoff not exceed the pre-development runoff.
To calculate the impact of development on storm water
runoff, we must calculate the pre-development storm
runoff and the post-development storm runoff.
In general, the change in runoff (difference) must be
retained/detained onsite such that the additional runoff
is not routed to the existing storm water system.

STORM WATER MANAGEMENT PLAN
The Rational Method

The Rational Formula

Q = C i A

Q = Peak runoff rate (cubic feet/sec)
i = Rainfall intensity (inches/hour)
A = Area in acres
C = Runoff coefficient (dependent on surface type)
The Rational Method

The Rational Formula (with recurrence adjustment)

Q = C
f
C i A

Q = Peak runoff rate (cubic ft/sec)
C
f
= Runoff coefficient adjustment factor
C = Runoff coefficient (dependent on type of surface)
i = Storm intensity (in./hour)
A = Area in acres
The Rational Method

The Rational Formula (with recurrence adjustment)

Q = C
f
C i A

Return Period C
f

1, 2, 5, 10 1.0
25 1.1
50 1.2
100 1.25
Storm Characteristics

Duration (minutes or hours) during which rain falls
in a single storm
Depth (inches) of rainfall resulting from storm
Intensity (inches per hour)
depth
intensity =
duration
Design Storm

Storm magnitude for which storm water
management facilities are designed
Dictated by local regulations
Described by return period and duration
Return period Average length of time between
storms of a given duration and depth
100 year storm has a 1 percent chance of occurring in
any given year
10 year storm has a 10 percent chance of occurring in
any given year
Rainfall Intensity

Rainfall (storm) intensity
for a given design storm
can be found from maps,
tables, or charts.
NOAA Tech. Paper No. 40
Rainfall Intensity

Intensity Chart for Gordon, PA
http://hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds/index.html
Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) chart for Gordon, PA

http://hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds/index.html
Rainfall Intensity

Example
Suppose a developer purchased a 3-acre farm in
Nashville, Tennessee. A 30,000 sq ft asphalt parking
lot will be placed on the plot. Local regulations require
that post-development runoff be limited to pre-
development runoff for a 25 year, 1 hour rainfall.

Find the change in peak runoff (i.e., find the difference
in the pre-development peak runoff and post-
development peak runoff).
Pre-Development Analysis
A = Area of the property in acres
A = 3 acres


Using the Rational Formula (with
recurrence adjustment)

Q = C
f
C i A
Pre-Development Analysis
i = Rainfall intensity
Use the Weather Bureau Intensity chart for Nashville, TN
(http://hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds/index.html)

i = 2.54 in./hr
C = Runoff Coefficient

Pre-development: Farmland
From Rational Method Runoff Coefficients table

C = 0.05 0.3

Use an average


Pre-Development Analysis
+
= = say
0.05 0.3
0.175 0.18
2
C
C
f
= Runoff Coefficient adjustment factor
= 1.0 for a 10 year storm.




Pre-Development Analysis
Return Period C
f

1, 2, 5, 10 1.0
25 1.1
50 1.2
100 1.25
cfs
= =
=
(1.1)(0.18)(2.54)(3)
1.5
pre f
Q C CiA
Pre-Development Analysis
i = Rainfall intensity
Same as pre-development intensity = 2.54 in./hr


2
1
30000
43,560
acre
A
ft
| |
= =
|
\ .
0.69 acres
3 0.69 A = =2.31 acres
Parking
Farmland
A = Area
Post-Development Analysis
C = Runoff Coefficient

Farmland: Use C = 0.18
Asphalt pavement: Use C = 0.95



Post-Development Analysis
Post-Development Analysis
Composite Runoff coefficient, C
c

c
C A C A
C
A A
+ +
=
+ +
1 1 2 2
1 2
( . )( . acres) ( . )( . acres)
acres
.
c
c
C
C
+
=
=
0 18 2 31 0 95 0 69
3
0 36
(1.1)(0.18)(2.54)(2.31) + (1.1)(0.95)(2.54)(0.69) =


= 3.0 cfs
= + ( ) ( )
post f farm f parking
Q C CiA C CiA
Post-Development Analysis
= (1.1)(0.36)(2.54)(3)
= 3.0 cfs

=
post f
Q C CiA
ALTERNATE METHOD
Change in Site Runoff
Calculate the difference
= 3.0 cfs - 1.5 cfs
= 1.5 cfs
A =
post pre
Q Q Q
The engineer uses this information to create a
storm water management plan. This plan
would include:
Release rate not to exceed the peak pre-
development Q
Swales (ditches)
Storm water pipes
Storm water management facilities
Retention/detention ponds
Bioretention areas
Storm Water Management Plan