1

Pressure Concepts
Petroforma - Luanda
2
Overbalance:
Mud pressure in excess of pressure on pore
fluids
Controlled by fluid density and/or column
height; required condition for conventional
drilling

Underbalance:
Mud pressure less than pressure on pore
fluids

Balancing Formation Fluid Pressures
3
Maintaining Primary Well Control
In most rotary drilling operations, an
important objective is to maintain a state of
primary well control.
Primary well control is the process of
maintaining an effective hydrostatic pressure
above formation pressure but less than the
formation breakdown pressure.
4
Loss of Primary Well Control
If primary well control is lost, a kick
(unwanted intrusion of fluids into the
wellbore) may occur. A kick can turn into
an uncontrolled blowout.
In such a case, secondary well control
measures come into effect. This primarily
involves the use of surface well control
equipment.
5
1. As direct measurement in different units
(psi, bar, kg/cm
2
, etc.)
2. EMD (Equivalent mud density)
3. Gradient (psi/ft, kg/cm
2
per 10 m)
4. Potential
Different Expressions of Pressure
6
A pressure is a force divided by the surface upon which this
force applies.

Pressure
Pascal
= Force
Newton
/ Surface
m2



The official pressure unit is the Pascal
It is a very small unit: 1 Pascal = 1 Newton/m
2

1 bar = 10
5
Pascal
1 atm = 1,013 *10
5
Pascal

A practical unit on the rig is the kgf/cm
2
:
1 kgf/cm
2
=

0.981 bar

In API, the unit is the pound per square inch (psi):
1 bar = 14.4988 psi

7
Exercise 1 Unit Conversions
Convert the following values to
the requested units:
25 kgf/cm2 = bars
15 Bars = psi
155 Psi = bars
1 kgf/cm
2
=

0.981 bar 1 bar = 14.4988 psi

217.48
10.69
24.53
8

Hydrostatic Pressure is the pressure
exerted by the weight of a static column
of fluid.
Function of:
- Height of the column
- Fluid density only.
Hydrostatic Pressure
The geometry and dimensions of the
fluid column have no effect on
hydrostatic pressure.
9
Hydrostatic Pressure
10




The scientist Pascal bet he
could destroy a barrel with just
a pint of water:
He fixed a long and thin tube on
the barrel and poured in the
water.

Despite the tiny volume of the
water, the height was enough to
make the barrel explode*!


*Also credited to the Flemish sicentist Simon Stevinus

Pascals Demonstration
11
Ph

= d * g * H
With Ph = hydrostatic pressure (Pascal)
d = Fluid specific gravity (kg/m
3)

H = Vertical height of fluid (m)


Hydrostatic Pressure Formula:
12
Hydrostatic Pressure Formula
API units:
Ph = 0.052*H*d

Where:
Ph = hydrostatic pressure (psi)
d = Fluid density (ppg)
H = Vertical height of fluid (ft)
Metric units:
H*d
10

Where:
Ph= hydrostatic pressure ( kg/cm
2
)
d = Fluid specific gravity (kg/l)
H = Vertical height of fluid (m)
NB : you must use 10.2 with pressure in bars
Ph =
13
Exercise 2 Hydrostatic Pressure
Calculate Ph in the following examples:
Height of fluid (m): 1000 Fluid density (kg/l): 1.5 Ph (kgf/cm2):
Height of fluid (ft): 5000 Fluid density (ppg): 10 Ph psi:
API units:
Ph = 0.052*H*d

Metric units:
H*d
10

Ph =
150
2600
14
If the mud weights in the pipes
and annulus are different, a
U-tube effect occurs due to
the difference of Ph, as the
system seeks equilibrium.
The slug of weighted mud
pumped just prior to a trip
takes advantage of this effect
to keep the inside of the pipe
dry at drill floor level.

The U-tube Effect
Pipe Annulus Pipe Annulus
Weighted
Mud
15
Pressure vs. Depth Plot
1.03
1.20
1.30
Pf & Ph (due to MW) in kgf/cm
2

Depth
(m)
The pressure vs. depth
plot provides a convenient
means to show changes in
pressure gradient with
depth.
16
Pressure vs. Depth Plot
Depth
(m)
Pressure from RFT (kgf/cm
2
)
Gas/oil
contact
(m)
Oil/water
contact
(m)
Another purpose of this
type of plot is to
determine the contacts
between fluids in a
reservoir by tracing the
trend lines of the RFT
pressure data.
17
Pressure vs. Depth Plot
The pressure vs. depth plot
also allows easy comparison of
pressure parameters whose
interaction may result in
drilling problems, such as
formation pressure and
fracture gradient.
18
Formation (Pore) Pressure
Formation pressure is the pressure of the fluid contained in the pore
spaces of the sediments.
0 500 1000 1500
Overburden pressure
d = 2.31
Hydrostatic pressure
d = 1.08
Hydrostatic pressure
d = 1.00
Negative
pressure
anomaly
Positive
pressure
anomaly
0
5000
D
e
p
t
h
Pressure
Negative pressure anomaly
Pressure less than hydrostatic
pressure.

Hydrostatic zone
Pressure remains in normal
hydrostatic regime.

Positive pressure anomaly
Pressure more than hydrostatic
pressure. Usually limited by
overburden stress.
Normal pressure
regime
19
Equivalent Mud Weight (EMW)
Depending on drilling conditions, the equivalent mud weight may
be greater or less than the actual mud weight.
Equivalent MW < actual MW
Equivalent MW > actual MW
Mud losses
Swabbing
Fluid Influx (kick)
Leak Off Test/Formation Integrity Test
Surge
Circulation (Hydrostatic + annular pressure loss)
20
Depth 2000m
Depth 0 m
Depth 1000
m
Fm. Press. 200 kgf/cm
2
Well - A
Well - B
EMW for well No 1 = 1 SG (200 X 10) / 2000
(Mud weight required to balance formation pressure)
EMW for well No 2 = 2 SG (200 X 10) / 1000
(Mud weight required to balance formation pressure )
Knowledge that the formation pressure is 200 is not enough. We have to see it in
relation to the balancing mud column.
Equilibrium Mud Weight
21
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD)
This is the effective density of the circulating fluid when pressure
drop in the annulus is considered:

Metric:
ECD = ((Ph + APL in kg/cm
2
)

X 10) / Depth in m
API:
ECD = ((Ph + APL in psi) / Depth in ft) / .052
Ph + annular pressure loss, converted to mud weight
ECD thus implies that the pressure at any point in the
annulus while circulating will be higher than when the
fluid is at rest (static).
Static Circulating
22
Swab/Surge
The drill string can act like a piston when moved
vertically, and this movement can affect the
wellbore pressure.
Swab: a decrease of effective hydrostatic caused
by mechanical movement upwards
Surge: an increase of effective hydrostatic caused
by mechanical movement downwards
23
Swab/Surge
Excessive swabbing, for example by pulling the pipe too fast
during a trip out of the hole, can result in a kick.

Excessive surge, usually from running in too fast, can result in
formation breakdown and lost circulation.

As these effects can be subtle, we must monitor trips carefully, by
keeping a trip sheet and by observing the differential volume
(volume +/-) parameter on the real-time data acquisition system.
24
Exercise 5 Equivalent Mud Densities
Calculate the EMW for the following cases:
Well total depth (m) 2000
Mud weight in hole (kg/l) 1.20
A. During a trip, the driller forgot to fill the hole
and the mud level is lower than normal; its
distance from flow line is 100m; EMW = kg/l
B. During a Leak Off Test, the pressure reached
A maximum of 10 kgf/cm2; EMW = kg/l
C. Circulation starts; the pressure losses in the
annulus is 4 kg/cm
2
; ECD = kg/l
1.14
1.25
1.22
25
Plotting Pressure Gradients
MW and pressure gradients may be plotted on the same graph,
allowing a comparison between MW, Formation pressure gradient,
Fracture gradient and Overburden gradient.
Pressure (kg/cm
2)

Depth
(m)
G
Pf
MW FRAC S
26
Overburden Stress: OVBP
Name convention :
OVBP for overburden Pressure
(often called S in the literature)
OVBg for local gradient
For intervals with constant density

OVBG for averaged Gradient, referenced to flow line,
expressed in EMW.


27
Overburden Stress: OVBP
Overburden stress is the pressure exerted by the weight of the
overlying sediments.
The term pressure is usually applied for fluid hence the word stress.

OVBP = P + s

OVBP: Overburden Stress (total pressure)
P: Pore Pressure
s: Pressure supported by rock matrix
(effective stress)

Cumulative weight of
rocks + fluid
Matrix: Rocks + Cement (Solids)
Contribution to total weight will depend on matrix density.
Fluid: Fluid assumed as water; gas will affect the density.
28
Matrix Stress Components
S
3

S 1
(overburden)
S 2

Unlike liquids, solids can withstand
different loads in various directions:
Imagine a cube of porous rock
somewhere in the subsurface
We can divide the stresses into 3
resulting forces according to the 3
directions of space: S1 can be
considered the Overburden, S2 and
S3 the tectonic forces.
Open hole ovalization can give an
idea of the difference between S2
and S3.
29
Terzaghi and Peck Equation
In a porous rock, the fluid may support part of the stress (due
to undercompaction) and the total stress will have 2
components:

OVBP = P + s (Terzaghi equation)

With OVB = Total stress (kgf/cm
2
)
P = Pore pressure ( or formation pressure) (kgf/cm
2
)
s = Effective stress (on the grains of the rock) (kgf/cm
2
)

Consequently:

S
1
= P + s
1
(OVBP)
S
2
= P + s
2

S
3
= P + s
3


So, in theory, the formation pressure is limited by the
overburden!

S
3

S 1

S
2

30
Overburden Stress Formula
Metric units:
H*rb
10
Where:
Ph = hydrostatic pressure (kg/cm
2
)
rb = Average formation bulk density
(no unit)
H = Vertical thickness of overlying
sediments (m)
OVBP =
API units:
OVBP = H*rb*0.433

Where:
Ph = hydrostatic pressure (psi)
rb = Average formation bulk density
(no unit)
H = Vertical thickness of overlying
sediments (ft)
31
Bulk Density Formula
The bulk density of a sediment is a function of the matrix density,
the porosity and the density of the fluid in the pores.
r
b
= (f * r
f
) + (1-f) * r
m

Where:
r
b
= Bulk density (no unit)
r
f
= Formation fluid density (no unit)
f = Porosity (from 0 to 1)
r
m
= Matrix density (no unit)
32
Overburden Gradient
Sediments laid down in the basin are buried deeper and deeper
with the continuation of the sedimentary process.
BURI AL I NREASES THE OVERBURDEN
I NCREASE OF OVERBURDEN LEADS TO COMPACTI ON
COMPACTI ON DECREASES POROSI TY
Sandstone
Clay / Shale
Porosity
D
e
p
t
h
Clay / Shale behaviour
Porosity decrease is rapid in the upper part of the
curve - shallow depth and unconsolidated section.
The curve levels off in compacted clay which
progressively changes to claystone and shale.

Sandstone
For the sandstone compaction is due to
realignment of grains and effects of diagenesis.
33
Overburden Gradient
Overburden gradient is calculated by averaging density
from surface to the depth of interest.

Knowledge of overburden gradient is necessary:
For evaluation of formation pressure
For calculation of fracture gradient



Bulk density increases with depth and also varies
depending on fluid and lithology. Hence averaging is
necessary.
(Metric) (API) OVBG
OVBG
34
Overburden Gradient
Consider 3 layers of different densities:

Interval Thickness app. density interval ovb
M M rb ovb pressure gradient

0 - 100 100 2.1 21 2.1
100 - 200 100 2.3 23 2.2
200 - 400 200 2.5 50 2.35
Gr = Press x 10 / Int

1) 100 x 2.1 / 10 = 21 kg / cm
2
(21) x 10 / 100 = 2.1
2) 100 x 2.3 / 10 = 23 kg / cm
2
(21+23) x 10 / 200 = 2.2
3) 200 x 2.5 / 10 = 50 kg / cm
2
(21+23+50) x 10 / 400 = 2.35
35
Overburden Gradient
Example overburden density curves
(Mouchet and Mitchell, 1989)

Some literature quotes average bulk
density as 2.31 kg/l,
or 1 psi/ft
This is an approximate
value only.
For accurate interpretation it is
necessary to calculate actual
values.
36
Overburden Gradient
Note the difference:

Onshore overburden
exceeds 2.31.

Off-shore overburden
remains below 2.31.
Onshore curve Offshore curve
Density 2.31 Density 2.31
Sea Bed
D
e
p
t
h

D
e
p
t
h

Offshore wells have a water column that affects bulk density. This effect can be very
important in moderate- to deep-water areas
37
Estimating Fracture Gradient

It is essential to increase mud weight during drilling of an abnormally pressured
section.
There is a limit to which MW can be increased.
Shallower parts of the well are weaker than deeper, more compacted strata.
Weakest point in the well is just below casing.
Increase in MW beyond limit may open fractures, possibly leading to mud loss
and kick.
Mud loss may also occur at the limit of the pressure in porous rocks such as SST
and LST.
MW is also limited by the casing and BOP.
Why do we need to know the Fracture Gradient?
38
Fracture Gradient
Fracture gradient is in part controlled by the overburden gradient. In
general, the lower the overburden gradient, the lower the fracture gradient.
In deepwater drilling, the range of usable mud densities may be very narrow
due to the low fracture gradients involved.
The Waterdepther spreadsheet
shows this relationship graphically.
Note how increased water depth
and/or formation pressure tends to
increase the number of casing
strings required.
39
Fracture Gradient
In exploratory drilling, the limit or fracture gradient is determined by
Leak-off Test (LOT) or Formation Integrity test (FIT).
LOT/FIT results also help define:
1. Adjustments to Casing Program and MW
2. Maximum pressure permissible during kick control to avoid
internal blow out.
3. Hydraulic fracture pressure required for stimulation.
A LOT tests the formation to the fracture-opening pressure, while a FIT merely
tests to a pre-determined value assumed to be slightly less than the maximum
pressure allowable. FIT is preferred when formations are already known to be
weak.

40
Leak-off Test
Pump


in a well with
closed BOPs



until the pressure
in the well reaches
fracturation
pressure of the
formation.
It is usually performed after drilling a
few meters below the last intermediate
casing shoe.
Normally, the cement pump is used, to
better control the volume and pressure
pumped.



41
Leak-off Test


A : Start Pumping
AB : Elastic behaviour of formation.
B : Leak off - fracture
BC : Mud penetrates formation
C : Pumping Stopped.
CD : Fracture propagation ceases
Pressure falls to a stabilised
pressure (D) which is less than
or equal to B
E : Bleed-off.

Mud recovered should be equal to the
volume pumped. If less, the fractures
remained open; pressure at D in this case
will also be less than pressure at B.
LOT
pressure
B
C
D
Pumping
Volume l Time
A
E
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

42
Formation Integrity Test
Volume
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

Time
FIT
Pressure
Bleed off
Pump off
43
Calculating Maximum Allowable Mud Density
P
FRAC
= P
LOT
+ Mud Hydrostatic Pressure in the well
First calculate bottom hole pressure:
Then determine EMW:
Metric:
EMW = (Ph kg/cm
2
X 10) / Depth in m
API:
EMW = (Ph psi / Depth in ft) / .052
44
Exercise 6 -- Fracture Gradient

Calculate Fracture - LOT- EMW from the data given below.
Drilled Depth: 1912 m. Casing shoe at 1900 m.
MW: 1.2 SG
LOT press.: 56 kg/cm2

Hydrostatic Pressure =
LOT pressure =
Total leak off pressure =
Frac. EMW =
1900 X 1.2 / 10 = 228 kg/ cm2
56 kg/cm2
284 kg/cm2
284 X 10/1900 = 1.49