Shale Characterization

Shale Characterization
By

Dr. Rahmat Ali Gakkhar

December, 2013

Exploration Department
Purpose of the course:
To introduce terminology and fundamental concepts for the description and
interpretation of Shale.
Shale Characterization
Source Books / Articles

Sedimentology and Sedimentary Processes by Virginia T. McLemore 2008.

Petroleum geochemistry and geology by John M Hunt 1996.

Basics and Application of Rock-Eval/TOC Pyrolysis by NUEZ-BETELU, L & BACETA, J. I. 1994

Presentation of Schlumberger 2011.

PhD Thesis 2010

Different Research Papers

Introduction
What is the relative stability of minerals?
Bowens Reaction series
shows the sequence in which
minerals crystallize from a
cooling magma.
Introduction
Mineral stability can also be shown using Bowens Reaction series:
The earliest minerals to crystallize are the least stable.
Quartz is the most stable of the
common mineral; it resists
chemcial weathering and is the
most common mineral in most
sedimentary rocks.
Potassium feldspar is also
common but Muscovite is
relatively soft and breaks down
during transport.
The stability of rock fragments
varies with their mineralogy.
Introduction
Sedimentary rocks make up only
7.9% of the Earths crust.
More than 70% of the surface of the
Earth is covered by sediments or
sedimentary rocks.
Introduction
Shale's abundance is dominant, 35% of the surface of the Earth is covered by it.
Introduction
Sediment
Sediment = loose, solid particles and can be:

Terrigenous = fragments from silicates (igneous and/or metamorphics).

Biogenic = fossils (carbonate - reefs; silicates - forams).

Chemical = precipitates (halite, gypsum, anhydrite, etc).

Note: with chemical sedimentary rocks, evaporation > precipitation and/or
supersaturation in closed basins (lakes or oceans).
Classified by particle size

Boulder

Cobble

Pebble

Sand

Silt

Clay
Sediment
Classified by particle size

Boulder - >256 mm

Cobble - 64 to 256 mm

Pebble - 2 to 64 mm

Sand - 1/16 to 2 mm

Silt - 1/256 to 1/16 mm

Clay - <1/256 mm
Sediment
Grain Size
1
(mm)
Sediment name Rock Name Adjectives
> 2 Gravel Rudite Cobble, pebble, well sorted,
etc.
0.0625-2 Sand Arenite Coarse, medium, well sorted,
etc.
< 0.0625 Mud Mudstone or
Lutite
Silt or clay
1
For the purposes of this general classification we will assign the rock or sediment name
shown if more than 50% of the particles are in the range shown.

More detailed classification schemes will limit terms on the basis of different proportions of
sediment within a given grain size.
A simple classification of terrigenous clastic rocks and sediment is based on the
predominant grain size of the material:
Classification of Sediment Based on Grain Size
Grade Scales
Grade scales define limits to a range of grain sizes for a given class (grade) of grain size.
They provide a basis for a
terminology that describes grain
size.
Sedimentologists use the Udden-Wentworth Grade Scale.
Sets most boundaries to vary by
a factor of 2.
e.g., medium sand falls between
0.25 and 0.5 mm.
Grain Texture
Sedmentologists often express grain size in units call Phi Units (f; the lower case Greek
letter phi).
Phi was originally defined as: ) ( log
2
mm d f
To make Phi dimensionless it
was later defined as:
Phi units assign whole numbers to the boundaries between size classes.
O
d
mm d ) (
log
2
f
Where d
O
= 1 mm.
Grain Texture
Grain Size
Grain size (diameter) and grain-shape depend on:

Transport media:
Rivers (pebbles bounce on river bottom, sand moved in traction, and silt/clay suspended
in water column);

Oceans and lakes (near-shore and deep-water systems);

Glaciers (sediment moved on glacier bottom); glaciers sort poorly (meaning there is
a large spread of grain sizes in glacial deposits)

Wind (sand dunes) winds sort well (meaning grain sizes are very similar);
Grain Size of Sediment
Grain Size of Sediment
Distance from parent (source) rock: the longer the distance traveled,
generally the smaller and the more well-rounded the grains (due to higher
kinetic energy).

Mineral hardness: the harder the parent rock, the longer it will take the
sediments to erode (example: silicates are more resistant to weathering and
erosion than feldspars, and this is why beaches are often comprised of sand,
not feldspar-rich sediments).
Provenance of a Sediment
The Provenance of a sediment is inferred from aspects of composition that reflect

The source rock

Tectonic and

Climatic characteristics of the source area for the sediment.
Provenance: where something originated.
The source rock of a sediment and the tectonic setting are closely linked:

The tectonic setting determines

The relative abundance of different types of rock that is available for weathering and

The production of clastic sediment.

e.g., An arkosic sandstone (rich in feldspars) would have a source area that is
rich in granites.

An exposed craton (e.g., the Indian/Canadian Shield)?

A mountain chain adjacent to a convergent margin (e.g., modern Andes)?
i) Tectonic setting
e.g., a sandstone with abundant volcanic and low grade metamorphic rock fragments (Island
arc setting).
Quartz arenite: sedimentary source rocks; uplifted sediments in an orogenic belt.
Two very different tectonic settings.
i) Tectonic setting
ii) Climate
Climate exerts a strong control on the type of weathering that takes place in the
source area of a sediment; this, in turn, influences composition.

Cold, arid climate:

Predominantly physical weathering, producing abundant detrital grains (unaltered
mineral grains and rock fragments).

Sandstones produced in such settings will be relatively immature, depending on
the source rocks.

Provenance of a Sediment Climate of Sediment
Warm, humid climate:

Chemical weathering predominates.

Unstable minerals removed from the sediment that is produced by
weathering.

Will produce a more mature
sediment than a cold climate.

Overall, there is a reduction in the proportion of feldspar in sands towards the south.
Several factors at work:
Source rocks: in the north are more
granitic source rocks whereas in the
south the major source rocks are
sedimentary rocks.
Climate: colder in the north so that physical weathering is important, producing immature
sediment.
Warmer in the south so that chemical
weathering produces a more mature
sediment.
Many sediments were produced during
glaciation which only breaks down
source rocks by physical processes.
Transport distance: Transported sediment over long distances, increasing the maturity of the
sands.

Provenance of a Sediment Transport Distance
After lithification the sediments
turn into sedimentary rocks
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Shale, Claystone, Siltstone and Sandstone

Non Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Limestone, Evaporites (Rock Salt Gypsum)
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
The Classification of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Based on Type
A very basic classification of
all sedimentary rocks is
based on the type of material
that is deposited and the
modes of deposition.

DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:

a) All detrital rocks are clastic

b) Sand and silt are predominantly quartz

c) Finer-sized particles of clay minerals

d) Conglomerates

e) Breccias

The most mature sediment would be made up of 100% quartz grains.
With increased transport and number of times through the rock cycle the less stable minerals
are lost.
The average igneous and metamorphic rocks contain 60% feldspars.
The average sandstone contains 12% feldspars.
This reflects the fact that many sandstones are made up of particles that have been through
several passes of the rock cycle.

DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Classification of Fine Grained Sedimentary Rocks
Shale: The general term applied to this class of rocks (> 50% of particles are finer
than 0.0625 mm).
Lutite: A synonym for "shale".
Mud: All sediment finer than 0.0625 mm. More specifically used for sediment in
which 33-65% of particles are within the clay size range (<0.0039 mm).
Silt: A sediment in which >68% of particles fall within the silt size range (0.0625
0.0039 mm).
Clay: All sediment finer than 0.0039 mm.

Silt - 1/256 to 1/16 mm

Clay - <1/256 mm
Siltstone: A rock composed largely of silt size particles (68-100% silt-size)
Mudstone: A bocky shale, i.e., has only poor fissility and does not split finely.
Argillaceous
Sediment: A sediment containing largely clay-size particles (i.e., >50%).
Argillite: A dense, compact rock (poor fissility) composed of mud-size
sediment (low grade metamorphic rock, cleavage not developed).
Psammite: Normally a fine-grained sandstone but sometimes applied to rocks of
predominantly silt-size sediment.
Classification of Fine Grained Rocks
Lutite terms are based on
proportion of clay, degree of
induration and thickness of
stratification.
Terminology Related to Stratification and Fissility (Parting)
Sedimentary Environments
Sketch of Sedimentary Environments
Alluvial Fans
Alluvial fans are sedimentary deposits that typically form at the margins of a dry
basin.

They typically contain coarse boulders and gravels and are poorly sorted.

Fine-grained sand and silt may be deposited near the margin of the fan in the
valley, commonly in shallow lakes.

These lakes may periodically dry, and evaporite deposits may result.

Alluvial fans are fan shaped deposits of water-transported material at break in slope.

Consequently, alluvial fans tend to be coarse grained.
Alluvial Fans
Eolian Deposits
Wind is an effective sorting agent and will selectively transport sand.

Gravel is left behind and dust-sized particles are lifted high into the atmosphere
and transported great distances.

Windblown sand forms dunes that are characterized by well-sorted grains
showing large-scale cross bedding.

Eolian Structures (Thar Desert Pakistan)
Glacial Deposits
Glaciers do not effectively sort the materials that they transport.

Common type of resulting deposit is an unstratified accumulation of boulders,
gravel, sand, and fine silt for which the term "till" is usually applied.

Rivers
Fluvial environments include braided and meandering river and stream
systems.

River channels, bars, levees, and floodplains are parts (or subenvironments) of
the fluvial environment.

Channel deposits consist of coarse, rounded gravel, and sand.

Rivers

Bars are made up of sand or gravel.

Levees are made of fine sand or silt.

Floodplains are covered by silt and clay.
Flood Plains
Rivers commonly meander across a flat flood plain before reaching the sea
and depositing a considerable amount of sediment.

Rocks formed in a flood plain environment are commonly lenses of "fluvial"
sandstone deposited in the meander channel enclosed in a shale deposited
on the flood plain.

Flood Plains
Indus Flood Plains
Lakes
Lacustrine Environments (or lakes) are diverse; they may be large or small, shallow or
deep, and filled with terrigenous, carbonate, or evaporitic sediments.

Fine sediment and organic matter settling in some lakes produced laminated oil shales.
Delta
Deltas are large accumulations of sediment that are deposited where a river
empties into a standing body of water.

They are one of the most significant environments of sedimentation and include
a number of subenvironments such as stream channels, flood plain beaches,
bars, and tidal flats.

The deposit as a whole consists of a thick accumulation of sand, silt, and mud.

Because of the abundance of vegetation in geologically young deltaic
environments, coals of various ranks commonly are associated with these
clastic sediments.

Delta
Swamps
Swamps (Paludal environments) Standing water with trees. Shale and Coal
are deposited.
Shoreline
Beaches, bars, and spits commonly develop along low coasts and partly enclose
quiet-water lagoons.

Sediments are well washed by wave action and is typically clean, well-sorted quartz
sand.

Behind the bars and adjacent to the beaches, tidal flats may occur where fine silt and
mud are deposited; evaporites may be present locally.

Barrier islands

Transitional Environment
Marine Environment

Shoreline Lagoons
Lagoons are bodies of water on the landward side of barrier islands.

They are protected from the pounding of the ocean waves by the barrier
islands, and contain finer sediment than the beaches (usually silt and mud).

Lagoons are also present behind reefs, or in the center of atolls.

Marine Environment
Shoreline Tidal flats

Tidal flats border lagoons. They are periodically flooded and drained by tides
(usually twice each day).

Tidal flats are areas of low relief, cut by meandering tidal channels.

Laminated or rippled clay, silt, and fine sand (either terrigenous or carbonate)
may be deposited.

Intense burrowing is common.

Marine Environment
The continental shelf is the flooded edge of the continent.

The continental slope and continental rise are located seaward of the
continental shelf.

The abyssal plain is the deep ocean floor. Marine Environment
Marine Environment
Shallow Marine
Shallow seas are widespread along continental margins and were even more
extensive during many periods of the geologic past.

Sediments deposited in these shallow marine waters from extensive layers of
well-sorted sand, shale, limestone, and dolomite, that commonly occur in a
cyclic sequence as a result of shifting depositional environments related to
changes in sea level.

When the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate of water supply, chemicals
dissolved in the water may be concentrated and precipitated as beds of
gypsum, halite, and more complex salts.

Marine Environment
Shallow Marine Environment
Organic Reef
An organic reef is a structure built of the shells and secretions of marine
organisms.

The framework of geologically young reefs typically is built by corals and algae,
but the reef community includes many types of organisms.

A highly fossiliferous limestone commonly is the result of these organisms in the
rock record.
Marine Environment

Organic Reef

Reworking of reef-derived sediments by wave and biological activities
commonly results in a complex group of sedimentary facies that may be
referred to as the reef tract.

Reefs are wave-resistant, mound-like structures made of the calcareous
skeletons of organisms such as corals and certain types of algae.

Marine Environment
Sketch of Marine Sedimentary Environments
Development of Organic Reef

Deep Ocean
The deep oceans contain a variety of sediment types. Adjacent to the
continents, a considerable amount of sediment is transported from the
continental margins by turbidity currents.

As the current moves across the deep-ocean floor its velocity gradually
decreases, and sediment carried in suspension settles out.

The resulting deposit is a widespread layer of sediment in which the size of
grains grade from coarse at the base to fine at the top.

Marine Environment
Deep Ocean

Such deep-sea deposits are characterized by sequences of graded beds of
these "turbidites".

Distant to the continents, dust transported by eolian processes may
accumulate as muds.

In sediment-starved parts of oceans away from the continents, siliceous ooze
formed of the tests of microorganisms called radiolaria accumulate.

These sediments form the radiolarian cherts of the rock record.

Marine Environment
Sketch of Marine Sedimentary Environments
Depositional Environments

The facies concept refers to the sum of characteristics of a sedimentary
unit, commonly at a fairly small (cm-m) scale.
Facies and Depositional Environments
The facies concept refers to the sum of characteristics of a sedimentary
unit, commonly at a fairly small (cm-m) scale. The characteristics are
as follows:

Lithology

Grain size

Sedimentary structures

Color

Composition

Biogenic content
Generally facies are divided into three types:

Lithofacies (physical and chemical characteristics)

Biofacies (macrofossil content)

Ichnofacies (trace fossils)
Walthers Law (1894) states that two different facies found
superimposed on one another and not separated by an unconformity,
must have been deposited adjacent to each other at a given point of
time.

Facies associations constitute several facies that occur in
combination, and typically represent one depositional environment
(note that very few individual facies are diagnostic for one specific
setting).


Facies successions (or facies sequences) are facies associations with
a characteristic vertical order.

Facies analysis is the interpretation of strata in terms of depositional
environments (or depositional systems), commonly based on a wide
variety of observations.

Description of Facies and Depositional Environments
Shale

The term shale is applied to those rocks,

With grains less than 1/16 mm,

That are fissile, or

Split into thin sheets,

Without regard to silt vs. clay.

Shale

To distinguish siltstones from claystones is very difficult (common name is
shale),

The rock how it breaks or splits depends upon gross textures.

Fissile rocks owe their character to parallel alignment of platy grains.
Shale
Accumulation of mud begins with the chemical weathering of rocks.

This weathering breaks the rocks down into clay minerals, and

Other small particles which often become part of the local soil.

Environments of Shale Deposition

Rainstorm might wash tiny particles of soil from the land, and

Transport into streams, giving the streams a "muddy" appearance.

The stream slows down or enters a standing body of water such as a lake, swamp
or ocean.

The mud particles settle to the bottom.

If undisturbed and buried this accumulation of mud might be transformed into a
sedimentary rock known as "mudstone".

This is how most shales are formed.

Composition of the Average Shale

Shale is a rock composed mainly of clay-size mineral grains.

They are usually clay minerals such as illite, kaolinite and smectite.

Shale usually contain other clay-size mineral particles.

Shale consists of inorganic minerals and organic matter. The
mineralogy of shale consists of:

Clay Minerals,

Quartz,

Chert,

Feldspar,

Carbonates,

Iron Oxides,

Organic Matter.

Composition of Shale
Clay : < 4 micron size fraction of rocks/soils that is composed of hydrous
layered alumino silicate minerals.

Clay Bound Water An intrinsic property of a clay type:

Adsorbed water on the clay surface (internal and external).

It occurs as molecules hydrating the cations and as physio-sorbed
molecules.

Excludes the volumetrically continuous phase in the interstitial pores;
also excludes capillary bound water.
Clay and Clay Bound Water
Understand the Clay Water Interface
Pores and Clay Platelets
Clay Bound Water Content & Surface Areas of Clay Minerals
Parameters used for shale gas estimation
PREVALENT DATA ON CLAY TYPES
ALL CLAYS ARE NOT SAME

ALL CLAYS DO NOT SWELL

ALL CLAYS ARE NOT SMECTI TE/BENTONI TE
Clay Mineral Composition of the Average Shale
Illite (K,H
3
O)(Al,Mg,Fe)
2
(Si,Al)
4
O
10
[(OH)
2
,(H
2
O)],

Kaolinite Al
2
Si
2
O
5
(OH)
4
,

Smectite: (Na, Ca)(Al,Mg)
6
(Si
4
0
10
)
3
(OH)
6
-nH
20
,

Chlorite: (Mg,Fe,Li)
6
AlSi
3
O
10
(OH)
8
The main clay minerals of shale are as under:
Illite
Illite is a non-expanding, clay-sized,
micaceous mineral.

Illite is a phyllosilicate or layered
alumino-silicate.

The interlayer space is mainly
occupied by poorly hydrated
potassium cations responsible for the
absence of swelling.
Illite (K,H
3
O)(Al, Mg, Fe)
2
(Si, Al)
4
O10[(OH)
2
,(H
2
O)]
Illite
Illite occurs as an alteration product of muscovite and feldspar in weathering and
hydrothermal environments.

It is common in sediments, soils, and argillaceous sedimentary rocks as well as
in some low grade metamorphic rocks.

The iron rich member of the illite group, glauconite, in sediments can be
differentiated by petrography & X-ray analysis.
Kaolinite
It is a soft, earthy, usually white mineral,
produced by the chemical weathering of
aluminium silicate minerals like feldspar.

Kaolinite has a low shrink-swell capacity.

Al
2
Si
2
O
5
(OH)
4
O
OH
Al
Si
Kaolinite
Kaolinite clay occurs in abundance in soils that have formed from the chemical
weathering of rocks in hot, moist climates in tropical rainforest areas.

Towards progressively cooler or drier climates, the proportion of kaolinite
decreases, while

The proportion of other clay minerals such as illite (in cooler climates) or
smectite (in drier climates) increases.

Such climatically-related differences in clay mineral content are often used to
infer changes in climates in the geological past, where ancient soils have been
buried and preserved.
Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite is a very soft
phyllosilicate group of minerals.

Montmorillonite, a member of the smectite
family.

Montmorillonite is the main constituent of
the volcanic ash weathering product,
bentonite.

The water content of montmorillonite is
variable and it increases greatly in volume
when it absorbs water
Smectite: (Na, Ca)(Al,Mg)
6
(Si
4
0
10
)
3
(OH)
6
-nH
20

Chlorite
The chlorites are a group of phyllosilicate minerals.
Chlorite minerals are ubiquitous minerals within low and medium temperature

Metamorphic rocks,

Some igneous rocks,

Hydrothermal rocks and

Deeply buried sediments.
Other constituents might include:

Organic particles,

Carbonate minerals,

Iron oxide minerals, sulfide minerals and

Heavy mineral grains.

Other Constituents" in the rock are often determined by the shale's environment of
deposition and often determine the color of the rock.

Composition of Shale
Like most rocks, the color of shale is often determined by the presence of specific
materials in minor amounts.

Just a few percent of organic materials or iron can significantly alter the color of a
rock.

Colors of Shale
A black color in sedimentary rocks almost always indicates the presence of organic
materials.

Just one or two percent organic materials can impart a dark gray or black color to
the rock.

Black color almost always implies that the shale formed from sediment deposited in
an oxygen-poor environment.

Black Shale

The presence of organic debris in black shales makes them the candidates for oil
and gas generation.

If the organic material is preserved and properly heated after burial oil and natural
gas might be produced.

The gas producing rocks are all dark gray or black shales that yield natural gas.

Black Shale

Any oxygen that entered the environment quickly reacted with the decaying organic
debris.

If a large amount of oxygen was present the organic debris would all have decayed.

An oxygen-poor environment also provides the proper conditions for the formation of
sulfide minerals such as pyrite.

Oxygen in Shale Environment
Gray shales sometimes contain a small amount of organic matter.

Calcareous materials or simply clay minerals in shale result in a gray color.

Gray Shale
Shales that are deposited in oxygen-rich environments often contain iron oxide
or iron hydroxide minerals such as hematite, goethite or limonite.

Just a few percent of these minerals distributed through the rock can produce
the red, brown or yellow colors.

The presence of hematite can produce a red shale.

The presence of limonite or goethite can produce a yellow or brown shale.
Red, Brown and Yellow Shale
Green shales are occasionally found.

This should not be surprising because some of the clay minerals and micas
that make up much of the volume of these rocks are typically a greenish color.
Green Shale
Colour of Shale as Environmental Indicator
Colour of Shale as Environmental Indicator
The different colours of these shale samples tell us something about the
conditions at their environment of deposition.

The black colour of the left specimen is due to preserved organic matter in an
anoxic or anaerobic environment, whereas

The red/brown sample on the right reflects oxidizing conditions that have turned
the
iron content red.

Hydraulic properties are characteristics of a rock such as permeability and porosity
that reflect its ability to hold and transmit fluids such as water, oil or natural gas.

Hydraulic Properties of Rock
Shale has a very small particle size so the interstitial spaces are very small.

In fact they are so small that oil, natural gas and water have difficulty moving
through the rock.

Shale can therefore serve as a cap rock for oil and natural gas traps and it also
is an aquiclude that blocks or limits the flow of underground water.

Hydraulic Properties of Shale
Although the interstitial spaces in a shale are very small they can take up a
significant volume of the rock.

This allows the shale to hold significant amounts of water, gas or oil but not be
able to effectively transmit them because of the low permeability.

Some of the clay minerals that occur in shale have the ability to absorb or adsorb
large amounts of water, natural gas, ions or other substances.

This property of shale can enable it to selectively and tenaciously hold or freely
release fluids or ions.

The oil and gas industry overcomes these limitations of shale by using horizontal
drilling and hydraulic fracturing to create artificial porosity and permeability within
the rock.

Shales and the soils derived from them are some of the most troublesome
materials to build upon.

They are subject to changes in volume and competence that generally make
them unreliable construction substrates.

Engineering Properties of Shale Soils
These soils swell on wetting and when they dry out they shrink.

Expansive soils contain minerals such as smectite clays that are capable of
absorbing and release large amounts of water.

When they absorb water they increase in volume.

This change in moisture content is usually accompanied by a change in volume.

Expansive Soils

Expansions of ten percent or more are not uncommon.

The more water they absorb the more their volume increases.

This change in volume can exert enough force on a building or other structure
to cause damage.

Buildings, roads, utility lines or other structures placed upon or within these
materials can be weakened or damaged by the forces and motion of volume
change.

Expansive Soils
Key Factors to Assess the Shale for Gas
The key factors to assess the shale gas in a basin are followings:

Lithology (mineralogy) of the formation

Organic matter richness

Maturity of organic matter

Formation thickness

Formation depth

Lithology (Mineralogy) of a rock can be assessed by different means:

with Petrographic Microscope,

XRD and XRF

SEM and

with Spectral Gamma Ray Log

Assessment of Rock Mineralogy
Gamma ray reading sometimes becomes frustrated as we don't know the exact
source of radiation.

To over come this problem spectral gamma ray log has been introduced.

Three elements are important

The uranium series,

The thorium series and

the potassium-40 isotope.

The counts recorded on a standard gamma ray log are the sum of these
elements.

Introduction: Gamma Ray Logs
The value of high gamma ray in shale is due to:

the uranium fixed in organic matter,

the thorium in clay minerals and potassium content (principally illite).

Sandstone, limestone and dolomite generally have low level of radioactivity
(gamma ray).

The high gamma ray in sandstone can be attributed to:

Clay minerals

Potassium feldspars,

Mica and

Heavy minerals.

Estimation of clay mineral volume (types).

The recognition of fractures filled by uranium salts.

The potassium-thorium crossplot is useful for:

The recognition of clay minerals.

Distinction of micas and K-feldspars.

Spectral Gamma Ray Log: Applications

Micas have higher content of K than clays.

Illite has higher potassium than mixed layer clays or smectite.

Kaolinite has very little or none of potassium.


Uranium has an insoluble tetravalent state (U
+4
) that is fixed under reducing
conditions.

Uranium can be transformed to the hexavalent state (U
+6
) which is soluble.

Thorium has a single insoluble tetravalent state (Th
+4
) which is geochemically
associated with uranium and becomes a useful standard for comparison.


The Th/U ratio is useful in the recognition of geochemical facies.

The Th/U ratio is an indicator of redox-potential.

Th/U<2 Th/U>7
Reducing Oxidizing
Adams and Weaver (1958) proved the following results:

When Th/U ratio was less than two (i.e. uranium-rich) the depositional environment
was reducing marine.

When Th/U ratio was greater than seven (uranium-poor), due to uranium mobilization
through weathering or leaching indicating an oxidizing, possibly terrestrial origin.

Insoluble U
+4
Soluble

U
+6

Insoluble Th
+4
Insoluble Th
+4
2 7
Gamma Ray Logs in Carbonates

In carbonates the high gamma ray is due to:

Shaly horizons

Uranium mineralization (diagenetic processes within fracture system)

Interpretation of Spectral Gamma Ray Data in
Carbonates
K Th U Explanation
Low
Low

Low

Pure carbonate, no organic matter or oxidizing
environment.
Low
Low

High

Pure carbonate, organic matter reducing
environment.
Low
High

Low

Not a carbonate, or shaly carbonate with rarer low
K high Th clay minerals no organic matter, or
oxidizing environment.
Low
High

High

Not a carbonate, or shaly carbonate with rarer low
K high Th clay minerals organic matter, reducing
environment.
High
Low

Low

Glauconite carbonate, no organic matter, or
oxidizing environment. Also consider K-evaporite.

High
Low

High

Algal carbonate, or glauconite present, organic
matter, reducing environment.
High High
Low

Shaly carbonate, no organic matter or oxidizing
environment.
High
High

High

Shaly carbonate,organic matter, reducing
environment.
An important criterion is the depositional environment of the shale, particularly
whether it is marine or non-marine.

Marine-deposited shales tend to have lower clay content and tend to be high in
brittle minerals such as quartz, feldspar and carbonates.

Brittle shales respond favorably to hydraulic stimulation.

Significance of Depositional Environment

Shales deposited in non-marine settings (lacustrine, fluvial) tend to be higher in
clay, more ductile and less responsive to hydraulic stimulation.

In general, higher the concentration of marine organic matter, the better be the
source potential.

Significance of Depositional Environment
Mineralogy and Depositional Environment by Spectral Gamma Ray Log
Sardhi
0.5
0.1 2
7 100
Th/U
T
h
/
K
1
Feldspar
Glauconite
Mica
Illite
Smectite
Mixed layer
clays
Kaolinite-
Chlorite
50
10
Bahu We l l #01
Fixed U Leached U
Oxidizing Reducing Oxidizing Reducing
Warccha
50
10
0.5
0.1 2
7 100
Th/U
T
h
/
K
1
Feldspar
Glauconite
Mica
Illite
Smectite
Mixed layer
clays
Kaolinite-
Chlorite
Bahu We l l #01
Fixed U Leached U
Chart showing the clay mineralogy derived
from Th/K ratios in different froamtions in
Bahu, Amir Wali and Ali Sahib wells
Mineralogy & Depositional
Environment Assessment by
Spectral Gamma Ray Logs
Mineralogy by XRD and SEM Case Studies
CLASTICS OF THE ALI SAHIB WELL
Lithological Log (Profile) of Core 04 of Ali Sahib Well

AGE
FORMATION LITHOLOGY
Lithofaciesno.
1
2
1886.00M
1886.90M
1893.45M
J
U
R
A
S
S
I
C
S
H
I
N
W
A
R
Y
?
SANDSTONE: TRANSPARENT,WHITE,LOOSEANDFRIABLE,FINETOMEDIUM
GRAINED,SUBANGULARTOSUBROUNDED,QUARTZOSE,MODERATELY
WELLSORTED,ANDPOORLYCEMENTED,OCCASIONALLYPYRITIC,SLIGHTLY
TONONCALCAREOUS,
CALCIMETRY:CACO3=2%
VISUALPOROSITY-PRIMARYFAIRTOGOOD,WHICHISINTERGRAULAR.
Scal e 1.5 cm = 1 m
As33
As34
As35
As36
As37
As38
As39
As40
As41
AS37
Sandstone

Claystone
Claystone: Brick red to
dirty brown, soft to
moderately firm, partly
sticky and hydrophylic,
slightly to non
calcareous
AGE
FORMATION LITHOLOGY
Lithofaciesno.
1
2
1886.00M
1886.90M
1893.45M
J
U
R
A
S
S
I
C
S
H
I
N
W
A
R
Y
?
SANDSTONE: TRANSPARENT,WHITE,LOOSEANDFRIABLE,FINETOMEDIUM
GRAINED,SUBANGULARTOSUBROUNDED,QUARTZOSE,MODERATELY
WELLSORTED,ANDPOORLYCEMENTED,OCCASIONALLYPYRITIC,SLIGHTLY
TONONCALCAREOUS,
CALCIMETRY:CACO3=2%
VISUALPOROSITY-PRIMARYFAIRTOGOOD,WHICHISINTERGRAULAR.
Scal e 1.5 cm = 1 m
As33
As34
As35
As36
As37
As38
As39
As40
As41
AS37
Sandstone

Claystone
Claystone: Brick red to dirty brown, soft to
moderately firm, partly sticky and
hydrophylic, slightly to non calcareous
Lithological Log (Profile) of Core 04 of Ali Sahib Well

Main Objectives
BY assessing lithological elements in detail, to delineate the provenance,
weathering and depositional patterns in Jurassic age.
Pre-microprobe Anylysis
General lithological description of Core (Red Claystone).

Measurement of porosity and permeabilty

Calcimetry.

XRD.

The XRD Of The Sample
2 - T h e t a
2 . 0 0 8 . 0 0 1 4 . 0 0 2 0 . 0 0 2 6 . 0 0 3 2 . 0 0 3 8 . 0 0 4 4 . 0 0 5 0 . 0 0 5 6 . 0 0 6 2 . 0 0
A S 3 7 - t
1 8 9 0 . 2 0 C 4
Kaol
Kaol
Kaol
F
e
l
d
s
p
a
r
Hema
Kaol
Kaol
Kaol
Kaol
Hema
Hema
Kaol
Hema
Pre-microprobe Anylysis Conclusion
Brick red to dirty brown,soft to moderately firm, partly sticky and hydrophylic,
slightly to non calcareous.

The general lithological description (red claystone) and XRD pattern, we may
easily conclude that sample consists of only Kaolinite and Hematite with
small traces of Feldspar (oxidized claystone).

The measurement of porosity, permeabilty and calcimetry is not to be
discussed here.
Zircon with Backscattered Electron
Zircon
Kaolinite
AS 37 1890.20 m C 4
Zircon with Cathodeluminicence
Zoning can be seen
AS 37 1890.20 m C 4
Zircon With Cathodeluminicence
Fracture / Pores and Zoning in The Grain is
Prominent
Zoning
AS 37 1890.20 m C 4
Fracture/ Pores
Ilmenite (FeTiO
3
) with Fractures
AS 37 1890.20 m C 4
Fracture
Ilmenite Grains with a Lot of Pores and Fractures
Fracture
Pores
AS 37 1890.20 m C 4
Kaolinite Al
2
Si
2
O
5
(OH)
4
, Ilmenite FeTiO
3

(below left) and Hematite Fe
2
O
3
(right)

Ilmenite
Hematite
Kaolinite
AS 37 1890.20 m C 4

ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT BASICS
Organic Shale
Deposited in environment with little or no oxygen.

Animals cant survive and organic mush accumulates.

Where sediment contains more than 5% organic
matter (by volume), it eventually forms a rock known
as a black shale.

Organic Matter Content Basics

To know if a sedimentary rock may have any petroleum potential, laboratory
analyses of the organic compounds contained in the rock are necessary.

In the subsurface, hydrocarbons are produced by thermal alteration of the
organic matter at temperatures between 50 and 175 C through a long period of
time.

Organic Matter Content Basics

The substitution of the natural conditions by unnaturally high temperatures in
the laboratory is necessary so that hydrocarbons can be produced over
practical periods of time.

Laboratory pyrolysis of the organic matter in sedimentary rocks aims to parallel
the changes in the subsurface (BAJOR et al., 1969) and provides a useful
technique for characterizing organic matter.

Types of Organic Matter


Total Organic Content (TOC) is the basic quantitative parameter that must be
used when determining the petroleum generation potential of a stratigraphic
unit.

However, although organic matter content in sediments is usually estimated by
a determination of organic carbon, the limiting element in the petroleum forming
reaction is not carbon but hydrogen.

The reason for analyzing carbon, however, is that only the hydrogen bonded in
organic molecules is active in the petroleum forming processes.


The hydrogen content in comparison to the carbon content is measured as the
Hydrogen/Carbon (H/C) ratio.

Hydrogen which is present in water or mineral phases is not active at
temperatures normally associated with oil generation (below 175 C) and,
therefore, does not contribute to the H/C ratio.


The amount of organic hydrogen is essentially controlled by the nature of the organic
matter present in the sediment, and thus,
The kerogen has been broadly classified in four types (I, II, III, and IV Fig next slide)
depending on the relative content of organic hydrogen.

These four kerogen types correspond to distinct biological source materials.


Definition of Source Rocks

These four kerogen types (as shown in the
figure) correspond to distinct biological source
materials.

The colour of a rock is a rough, but not always
reliable, indicator of its organic content.

For many years the oil industry's rule of thumb
has been that "black shales" are source rocks but
there are many source rocks which are not black
and some black shales which contain little organic
matter (TRASK and PATNODE, 1942).

Black colours may be caused by high manganese
oxide content or abundant micropyrite content (de
GRACIANSKY et al., 1987).

SOURCE ROCK

Definition of Source Rocks

Rocks that generate petroleum are "potential source rocks" and only can be classed as
"source rocks" after commercial quantities of petroleum have migrated out of them.

A more detailed definition of "potential source rock" was given by DOW (1977):

"A unit of rock that has the capacity to generate oil or gas in sufficient quantities to form
commercial accumulations but has not yet done so because of insufficient thermal
alteration".

WHOLE SAMPLE ROCK-EVAL PYROLYSIS TECHNIQUE
The rock-eval pyrolysis technique is based on the methodology described by ESPITALI
et al. (1977, 1985), ESPITALI (1986), PETERS (1986), and RIEDEGER (1991).

This technique provides data on the quantity, type, and thermal maturity of the associated
organic matter.

Whole Sample Rock-eval Pyrolysis Technique

This a simple and quick technique that can be carried out in the laboratory and in the well
site since it does not require especially expensive or highly sophisticated equipment.

Furthermore, the pyrolysis analyzer uses whole rock samples that do not need any
previous treatment.


Following this technique each sample is pulverized and 100.0 mg (+/- 0.1 mg) were
weighed into stainless steel crucibles.

These crucibles have a fritted (glass is finely porous glass through which gas or liquid
may pass) or screened top and bottom which allow the passage of helium carrier gas and
air for oxidation through the sample.


The samples are, one at a time, placed in an oven, and the generated data is sent to a
connected computer set.

After a sample is automatically placed in the oven, this is closed and the air purged with a
flow of helium.


Analysis of each sample requires about 20 min.

The sample is first heated under an inert atmosphere of helium at 300 C for 3-4 min and
then paralyzed at 25 C/minute to 600 C, followed by posterior cooling down for the next
sample to be run.


The heating of organic matter in the absence of oxygen yields organic compounds.

In the first stage of pyrolysis when the sample is maintained at 300 C the free organic
compounds (bitumen) already present in the rock are distilled.

In the second stage of increase heating to 600 C the insoluble organic matter (kerogen)
is cracked down into pyrolytic products.

Flame ionization and thermal conductivity detectors sense any organic compounds and
CO
2
generated during the two stages.


In the first stage the helium gas flow sweeps the volatile products out of the oven to a
splitter.

The first half of the split effluent is sent to water scrubber and then to a CO
2
trap.


The second half is directed into a hydrogen flame ionization detector where hydrocarbons
volatile at 300 C are detected and quantitatively measured.

After 2 minutes the oven increases its temperature at a rate of 25 C/ minute up to 600
C.

Once this temperature has been reached the CO
2
trap is dumped onto a thermal
conductivity detector and the amount of thermally evolved organic CO
2
is measured.


The pyrolysis values collected on the computer are presented in a table that includes
values such as T
max
, S
1
, S
2
, S
3
, PI, S
2
/S
3
, TOC, HI, and OI.

All these values are indicative of the level of maturity of the organic matter, the type or
types of organic matter, and the amount of hydrocarbons already produced or that can be
produced from a studied rock sample.


The first value, T
max
, represents the temperature at which the maximum amount of
hydrocarbons degraded from kerogen are generated (Fig. below next slide ).

T
max
does not represent the actual burial temperature of the rock but rather a relative
value of the level of thermal maturity.

If the rock has not been subject of oil generation then the organic matter has been little
altered and, therefore, if heated during pyrolysis it will produce hydrocarbons.

In turn, if the organic matter is more mature it will take more temperature to make it
produce hydrocarbons since it has already been impoverished.



The second value is S
1
and represents milligrams of hydrocarbons that are
thermally distilled from one gram of rock.

The S
1
peak is measured during the first stage of pyrolysis at the fixed
temperature of 300 C.

As rocks are buried they are subjected to increasing temperatures and
hydrocarbons start to be generated. These hydrocarbons form the S
1
peak.


The third value is S
2
and indicates the milligrams of hydrocarbons generated
from degrading the kerogen in one gram of rock during the second stage of
pyrolysis.

T
max
is the temperature at the maximum of the S
2
peak.

The larger the S
1
peak the deeper (up to a point) and more mature the organic
matter is.


This increase occurs at the expense of the S
2
peak which not only decreases in
size but also moves to higher temperatures as the less thermally stable material
has already broken down during natural maturation leaving a thermally more
stable kerogen residue in the rock.

If there is very little organic matter in the rock (below 0.3 wt. %) a very limited
amount of hydrocarbons can be produced and thus, the S
1
and S
2
peaks will be
very low and form a wide gentle hump.


The pyrolysis analyzer, then, will have difficulties to pick the highest point of the
hump and will present unreliable, scattered data.

Both the ratio S
1
/S
2
and T
max
indicate the level of maturity of the organic matter.

The forth value is called S
3
and expresses the milligrams of carbon dioxide
generated from a gram of rock during temperature programming up to 390 C.

Next comes the production index (PI) which is defined as the ratio S
1
/(S
1
+S
2
).


PI is an indication of the amount of hydrocarbon which has been produced
geologically relative to the total amount of hydrocarbon which the sample can
produce.

The S
2
/S
3
ratio is the sixth value and represents a measure of the amount of
hydrocarbons which can be generated from a rock relative to the amount of
organic CO
2
released during temperature programming up to 390 C.


HI versus T
max
of samples from Ali Sahib and Amir Wali wells. W: Ditch cuttings of the Amir Wali Well, CW: Core of
the Amir Wali Well, S: Ditch cuttings of the Ali Sahib Well, CS: Core of the Ali Sahib Well.
AUTHORS: Gakkhar et al. Source-rock Potential and Origin of Hydrocarbons in the Cretaceous & Jurassic Sediments of the Punjab Platform (Indus Basin) Pakistan

S
2
/S
3
ratios are considerably lower for Type III kerogen than for Type II and
Type I because terrestrially derived organic matter contains substantially more
oxygen than the other types of organic matter.

The Pyrolyzed Carbon (PC) is defined as the ratio (S
1
+S
2
)/100 and is another
organic type indicator.

Type I kerogen yields PC values of about 80 %, Type II of about 50 %, and
Type III between 10-30 %.


After pyrolysis is complete the sample is transferred to an oxidation oven where
is heated to 600 C in the presence of air.

There the residual organic matter generates CO
2
which is quantitatively
measured by passing the effluent over a series of traps and catalysts.

The amount of this carbon is added to S
1
and S
2
to obtain the Total Organic
Carbon (TOC) content that is given in weight percentages.


Two other obtained values are the Hydrocarbon Index (HI) and Oxygen Index
(OI).

HI is defined as the ratio S
2
/TOC, and represents the quantity of pyrolysable
organic compounds from S
2
relative to TOC in the sample.

OI is defined as S
3
/TOC and corresponds to the quantity of carbon dioxide from
S3 relative to TOC.


Petroleum generation results from the transformation of sedimentary organic
matter in the subsurface under the influence of both temperature and geologic
time.

This transformation can be ascribed to the thermal cracking of the kerogen
which releases micropetroleum into the pore system of the source rock
(TISSOT and WELTE, 1984; HUC, 1990).


Rock-eval pyrolysis permits rapid evaluation of the organic matter type, quantity
and maturity and, thus, yields information on the petroleum-generative potential.

However, a minimum amount of organic matter is needed to obtain reliable
results.

This technique is based on the production of hydrocarbons from a rock sample
by steadily heating it.


However, if the amount of organic matter present in the rock is very small or is
completely burned little information can be obtained.

If high thermal maturation values (expressed as high, R
0
, vitrinite reflectance
values) are suspected other techniques should be more appropriate to the study
of the organic matter.


The amount of organic matter is expressed by the TOC values which represent
the total amount of organic carbon present in the rock.

For shales, usually a TOC of 2.0 % is considered to be good, and a

TOC value higher than 4 % is considered as very good.

For limestones even lower values are good.


The Tmax value represents the temperature at which the largest amount of
hydrocarbons is produced in the laboratory when a whole rock sample
undergoes a pyrolysis treatment.

The production of these hydrocarbon by pyrolysis is linked to the amount of
hydrogen the rock still contains.

The more mature the rock is the lower amount of hydrogen it contains and the
highest amount of energy it needs to liberate hydrocarbons.


The thermal maturation level is deduced from the T
max
values.

In general, T
max
values lower than 435 C indicate immature organic matter
(organic matter).

T
max
values between 435 C and 455 C indicate "oil window" conditions
(mature organic matter).


Values between 455 and 470 are considered transitional.

A Tmax higher than 470 C represents the wet-gas zone and over mature
organic matter (PETERS, 1986).

The thermal maturation level for oil-prone type I kerogen is often higher than for
the other types of kerogen (TISSOT et al., 1978).


Tmax data for samples with S
2
peaks less than 0.2 mg HC/g rock may be
inaccurate because the S
2
peak becomes so broad and low that there is no
sharp top and, thus, the analyzer takes any point as the top of the peak.

For this reason if there is very little organic matter in the rock, the S
2
peak is
very low and broad, and Tmax values are scattered and unreliable.


T
max
values may also be depressed by the presence of resinite from fossil tree
resin or they may be increased by the presence of other organic compounds
such as gilsonite.

For the same maturation level, carbonate-rich rocks usually yield lower T
max

values than clay-rich samples.


For samples containing less than 0.5 wt.% TOC the Oxygen Index values may
be anomalous because of adsorption of carbon dioxide or oxygen.

The Hydrogen Index (HI) versus T
max
diagram (GORIN and FEIST-BUKHARDT,
1990) is based on the amount of hydrogen that the kerogen contains and the
amount of energy necessary to produce hydrocarbons from that type of kerogen
in the laboratory over a short period of time.

ESPITALI et al. (1977) defined the Hydrogen Index (HI) versus Oxygen Index
(OI) program where HI and OI are (S
2
/TOC) x 100 and (S
3
/TOC) x 100
respectively.


The type of organic hydrogen is controlled by the nature of the organic matter.

Aquatic organic matter has a high hydrogen content whereas terrestrially
derived organic matter has a low hydrogen content and a variable high oxygen
content.


The type I kerogen has a mono specific algal origin and presents the highest
hydrogen content.

Thus, this type of kerogen usually gives the highest HI values.

In the HI versus OI pyrogram of PETERS (1986) this type of kerogen occurs in
the upper left owing to its high hydrogen and low oxygen contents.


Type II kerogen is originated mainly from phytoplanktonic organisms and has a
relatively high hydrogen content but not as high as type I.

Therefore, HI values for this type of kerogen are intermediate and occupy the
central part of the both pyrograms.

This is usually the oil forming kerogen.

The HI versus Tmax diagram also will provide information about the maturation
level, and, thus, the oil generation expectancies.

Type III of kerogen corresponds to terrestrially produced organic matter,
especially material from higher plants.

The majority of the terrestrial plant material has less hydrogen than the aquatic
plant material.

In addition, the terrestrial plant organic matter is transported (usually by fluvial
systems) for relatively long distances before it is deposited in subaquatic
basins.

During transport the terrestrial organic matter is partly degraded and
impoverished in hydrogen.

Due to its nature and the degradation suffered during transport, terrestrial
organic matter and, therefore, its sedimentary counterpart, the type III kerogen,
present low HI values.

Type III kerogen commonly plots on the lower part of both pyrograms.

This type of kerogen usually is a source of gas rather than oil.

The maturation level will offer information on the gas forming capability of the
studied sample.


Type IV of kerogen represents an extreme of type III and contains very little
hydrogen.

If plotted on the pyrograms it occurs on the bottom of the diagrams.

The only difference with type III is that type IV organic matter usually has high
Tmax values or lacks the S
2
peak.

Type IV kerogen behaves as oxidized kerogen.


The Production Index (PI) is also in part indicative of the degree of thermal
maturity (Peters, 1986).

In general, PI values below 0.4 indicate immature organic matter; PI values
between 0.4 and 1.0 indicate mature organic matter; and PI values above 1.0
are indicative of overmature organic matter.

Interpretation Of Rock-eval Pyrolysis Data

Outcrop samples commonly show depletion in S
1
and S
2
and high S
3
values
due to weathering.

PI is defined as the ratio S
1
/(S
1
+S
2
), and, hence, depletion of S
1
and S
2
may
induce changes on actual PI values.

Immature sediments commonly yield poorly separated S
1
and S
2
peaks which
can lead to anomalous results.


Oxidation is the most common form of degradation of organic matter.

Oxidation removes hydrogen and adds oxygen to the kerogen, and therefore, HI
values are usually lower and OI values higher for outcrop samples than for
fresh-core samples.


Mechanism of Shale Gas Storage
At a given temperature and pressure, the gas sorption capacities of organic rich
shales are primarily controlled by the organic matter richness, but

The significantly influenced by the type and maturity of organic matter,

Mineral composition (specially clay content),


Moisture content,

Pore volume and structure,

Resulting in different ratios of gas sorption capacities (GSC) to total organic
carbon content for different shales.
In laboratory experiments,
the GSC of Organic rich shales increases with increasing pressure, and

decreases with increases temperatures.


Under geological conditions (assuming hydrostatic pressure gradient and constant
thermal gradient),

the GSC increases initially with depth due to the predominant effect of pressure,

passes through a maximum, and then

decreases because of the influence of increasing temperature at greater depth.

This pattern of variation is quite similar to that observed for coals and is great
significance for understanding the changes GSC of organic rich shales over
geological time as a function of burial history.

At an elevated temperature and pressure and with presence of moisture, the
gas sorption capacities of organic rich shales are quite low.

As a result, adsorption alone cannot protect sufficient gas for high maturity
organic rich shales to be commercial gas reservoirs.

Adsorption is the process of molecule accumulation on the surface of a material
(adsorbent).


Notionally, the Gas Storage Capacity (GSC) of an organic rich shale is controlled
by:

1. Characteristics of organic matter (richness, type and maturity),

2. The composition of matrix minerals,


3. The volume and structure of pores,

4. The content of moisture, and

5. The pressure and temperature regimes

Natural gas stored in organic rich shales may exist in three forms:

a) free gas in pores and fractures,

b) adsorbed gas in organic matter and inorganic minerals,

c) dissolved gas in oil and water
Two models are proposed to predict the variation of GSC and total gas content
over geological time as a function of burial history.

High contents of free gas in organic rich shales can be preserved in relatively
closed systems.

Loss of free gas during post generation up lift and erosion may result in under
saturation (total gas contents lower than the sorption capacity) and is the major
risk for gas exploration in marine organic rich shale.

Characteristics of Organic Matter (Richness,
Type and Maturity)
Overmature organic rich shales have high degrees of organic matter conversion
and, therefore, have good potential to have high gas contents and high gas flow
rates (Jarvie et al).

Barnett Shale of USA is the primary source rock for conventional oil and gas,
and has produced approximately 2 billion barrel of oil and 7 tcf of gas since the
production began in the early 1900s (Hill et al., 2007a & 2007b).

Gas contents for the overmature shales are indeed significantly higher than
those for shales within oil window (R
o
< 1.3 %),

In contrast, the most richest marine shales in South China had made a little
contribution to the conventional oil and gas so far found because most
hydrocarbons generated and expelled had been lost during intensive
postgeneration tectonic motions (Ma et al., 2004).

Same is the case with Pakistan particularly in Upper Indus Basin.

However, the Cretaceous Shales in the Lower Indus Basin has contributed a lot
as a source rock and assumed to be gas filled.
Characteristics of Organic Matter (Richness,
Type and Maturity)
Understanding the relative proportions of gas stored in these different forms is
critical to an accurate assessment of shale gas resources (Zang et al., 2012).

Adsorption is the process of molecules accumulation on the surface of material
(adsorbent) and is a consequence of surface energy minimization (Zang et al.,
2012).

Because of the differences in chemical structures, and/or specific surface areas,
different kerogen types or coal maceralshave different gas sorption capacities.
Zang et al., 2012 showed that the gas sorption capacities of kerogenes
decrease in the following order:

type III> type II > Type I.

They attributed the differences in gas sorption capacities among different
kerogen types to changes in chemical structures and stated that aromatic rich
kerogens have stronger affinity for methane than kerogen containing aliphatic
organic matter.


Predictably, because aromatization increases as maturity increases, the
difference in gas sorption capacities among different kerogen types decreases
with increasing thermal maturity.

Barnett Shale with maturity of 0.58% and 0.81% R
o
have similar gas sorption
capacities, whereas 2.1 % R
o
has an obvious higher GSC.
The thermal conversion of kerogen to petroleum results in the formation of an
increasingly aromitized carbon rich residue and generates organopores
(microscale and nanoscale within organic matter in shales (Slatt and O Brien,
2011).

The increased GSC for high maturity may be caused by the combination of
increase in aromitization (Zang et al., 2012), increase in organoporosity and
surface, and decrease in pore surface hetrogeneity with increasing maturity
(Ross and Bustin, 2009).

Quartz and carbonate mineralshave low internal surface areas and, therefore,
have low GSC ((Ross and Bustin, 2007).
Clay may adsorb gas to their internal structure (Valzone et al., 2002).

Different clay minerals have different micropores volumes and surface areas
and therefore, have different gas sorption capacities.

On dry basis, illite and montmorillonite have larger sorption capacities than
kaolinite.


For example, the GSC for illite at 30
o
C and 7 MPa (1015 psi) is as much as 3
cm
3
/g.

Clay minerals are hydrophillic, and the existence of moisture will significantly
reduce the adsorption capacities of clay minerals.

As a result, mineral play a relatively less significant role in a gas adsorption
within organic rich shales (Zang et al., 2012).
Gas in organic rich shales may be stored in matrix pores, organopores, or
fracures.

The ten gas producing have an average porosities between 3% and 14%.

Shales and mudstones in different sedimentary basins exhibit widely varying
relations between porosity and burial depth and may have a porosity of as
much as 15% at depth deeper than 5 km (Mondol et al 2007).


Organic rich shales are dominated by nanometers pore scales but may have
pores up to the micrometer or sub-millimeter scale.

Pores in organic rich shales are classified as micropores (less than 2 nm),
mesopores (2-50 nm) and macropores (greater than 50 nm).
Pore volume and structure of organic rich shales have an important influence on
gas sorption capacities.

Micropore volumes increase with increasing TOC and Al
2
O
3
contents in certain
shales.

The microporous surface areas display an increasing trend, whereas
mesoporous surface areas display a decreasing trend as TOC contents
increase (Chalmer and Bustin, 2008 a, b).
These results suggest that micropores in organic-rich shales are mainly
contained in organic matter and clay minerals.

The gas sorption capacities for organic rich shales increase with increasing
micropore volumes, suggesting that gas adsorption is mainly associated with
micropores.

Gas sorption capacities of organic rich shales seems to decrease with
increasing mesoporous and macroporous surface areas and increasing total
porosities.
Fractures are common in organic rich shales (Slatt and Abousleiman, 2011) and
may potentially provide a large amount of surface area.

However, the role of fracture surface area in gas adsorption in organic rich
shales is still poorly understood.


The gas sorption capacities of coals can apparently be reduced by 60 % to 90
% as compared to dry state.

The effect of moisture contents on the gas sorption capacities of organic rich
shales are quite different. Because organic rich shales have much higher
content of minerals and hydrogen rich organic matter ( for marine shales of low
maturity level).
Clay minerals are hydrophyllic, and organic matter is hydrophobic. Therefore, a
selective sorption of methane and moisture in organic shales must exist.

Moisture is preferentially adsorbed on clay minerals, whereas methane may be
preferentially adsorbed on the surface of organic matter.

Moisture acts as a dilutent to gas sorption.
Under moisture equilibrated conditions, moisture moisture may make many
microporous sorption sites unavailable to methane by filling pore throats or
occupying sorption sites.

The GSC under the moisture-equilibrated state is less than 60 to 70 % of that
under dry state for organic rich shales.

When pressure is greater than 1 MPa (145 psi), the GSC under moisture-
equilibrated conditions is at least 25% lower than that under dry conditions.

This confirms that the presence of moisture significantly reduces the gas
sorption capacities of organic rich shales.
A general correlation between TOC content and GSC has been observed for
almost all organic rich shales which suggests that TOC content is the most
significant control on GSC.

However, the ratios of GSC to TOC content for different shales vary
considerably.


Certain organic rich shale display no correlation between gas sorption
capacities and TOC contents as Gordondale Formation of Canada having 12 %
TOC and lower than 1.0 m
3
/ton.

This formation consists of high quartz and calcite contents 60 %- 90% of the
mineral phase; and

Relatively low thermal maturity (Ro < 1.2 %) and has low micropore volumes
associated with organic matter and clays, which accounts for the low GSC-to-
TOC content ratios.
The level of kerogen aromitization, high micropore volumes associated with
both high-maturity organic matter and clay minerals, and decreased pore
surface heterigeneity accounts for the high ratios of GSC to TOC content.

Varying kerogen types (type I, II, II/III, and III), varying thermal maturity (T
max

416
o
C to 476
o
C), and varying clay mineral contents 14 % to 88 % show medium
ratio of GSC to TOC content.
Adsorption is an exothermic process, and therefore, the gas sorption capacities
of organic rich shales decrease with increasing temperatures.

The temperature dependence of the sorption capacity is controlled by the
isosteric heat of sorption which, in turn, depends on the surface coverage.

The isosteric heats of sorption range from 10 to 22 kj/mol for types I to III
kerogens (Zang et al., 2012).
There is linear relation between the natural logarithm of Langmuir
constant (K) and the reciprocal of temperature (1/T).
The equation for type II kerogen is
Ln (K) = 2628/T 9.75 (1)

Where T is temperature in degree Kelvin and K is the Langmuir constant
with a unit of 1/MPa.

According to Zang et al., 2012, the amount of adsorbed gas () at given
pressure (P) may be expressed by the following Languir equation:

=
max
K x P
1+ K x P (2)

Where
max
is the Langmuir maximum amount of adsorbed gas on the
sorbent and P is the pressure in megascale.

A general correlation between TOC content and GSC has been observed for
almost all organic rich shales which suggests that TOC content is the most
significant control on GSC.

However, the ratios of GSC to TOC content for different shales vary
considerably.

Certain organic rich shale display no correlation between gas sorption
capacities and TOC contents as Gordondale of Canada having 12 % TOC and
lower than 1.0 m
3
/ton.

Using equations 1 and 2, the effect of temperature on pressure on GSC is
expressed as /
max
.

The temperature and pressure conrolled gas sorption give important insight into
the variation of gas sorption capacities of organic rich shales under geological
conditions.

CONVENTIONAL VERSUS
UNCONVENTIONAL RESERVOIRS
Conventional Versus Unconventional Reservoirs
The main differences are :
- low-permeability structure itself

- response to overburden stress

- impact of the low-permeability structure on effective permeability relationships
under conditions of multiphase saturation, or

- understanding of multi-phase, effective permeability to gas at varying degrees
of water saturation under conditions of overburden stress

Why Unconventional

With the increased global demands on oil and gas,

Operators conducting more advanced drilling operations, such as

Horizontal and high-pressure/high-temperature (HP-HT) drilling into
unconventional resources.

Unconventional gas resources offer significant gas production growth potential
in the coming years, currently accounting for 43% of the US gas production.

However, economical production of Unconventional is very challenging as it
exists in reservoirs with nano to micro-Darcy range permeability and low
porosity.

But has a huge potential for production in the future.

Poor permeability results in lower gas production rates from Unconventional
reservoirs.

In order to economically develop Unconventional resources an advanced
technology has to be developed and implemented.

Most of the Unconventional reservoirs (Shale Gas /Tight Gas) are characterized
by being thick where their gas production rates can be enhanced by hydraulic
fracturing.

The used technology to drill, complete and stimulate Unconventional reservoirs
is quite complex and the results are often unexpected and unforeseen.

The appropriate completion methods and stimulation techniques in these reservoirs
are dependent on many parameters and variables, such as:

Depth,

Pressure,

Temperature,

Capillary and

Overburden pressures and

The number of sand layers.
The total scope of gas resources was viewed as a triangle for the first time by
Master (1979) as shown in Figure Resource Pyramid.

This figure shows that the natural gas resources are distributed log-normally in
nature with respect to formation permeability of tight gas sands.

The triangle peak represents the conventional gas, which is relatively easy to
extract, with a small available supply.
There is much larger supply of unconventional gas, which makes up the base of
the triangle, but it is more difficult to extract.

As development of gas continues, oil and gas industries are moving down the
triangle and developing more unconventional gas resources that are difficult to
be exploit but they are large in size.
The tight sand gas reserves distribution is well-matched with the scheme of the
resource triangle shown in Figure (above slide).

This figures confirms the fact that significant improvement in technology or
changes in the gas market are required before the gas in the resources
category can be produces at an economic level.
CONVENTIONAL VERSUS UNCONVENTIONAL RESERVOIRS
Figure showing availability of gas in different reservoir
0.0001 md
0.001 md
0.1 md
1 md
100 md
1000 md
Resource Pyramid
D
e
m
a
n
d

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

C
o
s
t

D
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t

T
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
y

C
o
n
t
i
n
o
u
s

d
e
m
a
n
d

a
n
d

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t

Tight sands produce about 6 Tcf of gas per year in the United States which is
27-30% of the total gas produced.

As of January, 2009, the U. S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)
estimates that 310 Tcf of technically recoverable tight gas exists within the U.S.


Worldwide, more than 7,400 TCF of natural gas is estimated to be contained
within tight sands (Rogner, 2006) with some estimates as large as 30,000 TCF.

According to Holditch et al. (2007) large resources of unconventional gas
reservoirs exists worldwide.

Kawata and Fujita (2001) summarized the work of Rogner (1996) the world with
total unconventional resources of 32,560 Tcf,
Driving the Development of Unconventional
There is good reason to expect that unconventional gas production will increase
significantly around the world in the coming decades for the following reasons
(Ronger, 1996; Khlaifat, 1998; Holditch et al., 2007):

Exploitation of the estimated resources.

A large number of geologic basins around the world contain unconventional gas
reservoirs.

Utilization of reasonable recovery efficiency to develop unconventional gas
worldwide.


The related developed technology in the United States over the past 3 to 4
decades will be available for application around the world.

New technology is rapidly becoming a worldwide commodity through efforts of
major service companies.

The global need for energy, particularly natural gas, will continue to be an
incentive for worldwide unconventional gas resource development.


Unconventional resources exploitation governmental incentives.

Conventional gas is mature and declining so the future of the gas industry is
Unconventional,

Consequently unconventional gas production has no other choice but to grow.

Higher oil and gas prices are driving the development of unconventional oil and
gas resources.

If technology can be developed well enough to provide a better estimate of
formation permeability, porosity and water saturation, the development of
unconventional reservoirs can be improved substantially.

Proper formation evaluation is essential for the development of unconventional
reservoir.

Not all methods (volumetric, material balance, decline curves and reservoir
models) used to estimate the reserves of conventional reservoirs work to
evaluate the unconventional reservoirs reserves.

Key Factors to Assess the Shale Gas
Key Factors to Assess the Shale Gas
The key factors to assess the shale gas in a basin are followings:

Lithology (mineralogy) of the formation

Organic matter richness

Maturity of organic matter

Formation thickness

Formation depth

Kerogen Attributes and Evolution

Methane adsorbs to kerogen
Insoluble organic matter
Equivalent to TOC

Kerogen
Deposited in anoxic environments
Significant volume within organic shales
Shrinkage during maturation creates porosity
Kerogen conversion
Organic matter: 5%
Kerogen 90%
Bitumen 10%
Basic scheme of organic
maturation process and
formation of petroleum
hydrocarbons in nature.
This diagram has been
modified after BARKER
(1979) and BROOKS et al.
(1987).
Organic Matter Maturation
As black shale is buried, it is
heated.

Organic matter is first changed
by the increase in temperature
into kerogen, which is a solid
form of hydrocarbon.

Around 90C, it sis starts to
change into a liquid state, which
we call oil.

Around 150C, it is changed into
a gas.
A rock that has produced oil and
gas in this way is known as a
source rock.
Organic Matter Geothermal Diagenetic Criteria
Significance of Vitrinite Reflectance
Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro%)
Low maturity source rocks 0.0 0.55%

Oil window 0.55% 1.15%

Condensate-wet gas window 1.15% 1.40%

Dry gas window > 1.40%

Jarvie et al, 2005

Oil Zone
Wet Gas Zone
Dry Gas Zone
60
100
175
225
315
Generation Intensity
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Temperature Range

Oil window 60 - 175C

Wet gas window 175 225 C (Approx.)

Dry gas window above 225 315 C
Jarvie et al, 2005
Kerogen Types - Van Krevelen Diagram
Four primary kerogen types

Type I & II Oil prone

Type III Woody (gas only)

Type IV Little or no hydrocarbon

Most gas shales are mixed Type II & III
Petrology
Kerogen
Hydrophobic
Low density (1.1 to 1.4 g/cm3)
High GR activity (100 to 6000 gapi)
Low Pe (0.28)
High neutron (30 to 60 pu)

Maturity
Controls bitumen, oil, pyrobitumen
Clay types
Expandables (smectite, mont.)
Phosphates
~ 80% Amorphous, XRF
Pyrite, siderite, etc

Type II Marine Liptinite
Type II Marine Microalgae
Mixed Amorphous
Hydrophobic
High activity compared to most
shales (>150 gAPI)

Not directly correlative to TOC

May not be valid for Cretaceous and
Tertiary shales
Shale Gas Evaluation by
Triple Combo Log
Resistivity > 15 ohm-m

High resistivity is good

Reflection of shale maturity / TOC

Low resistivity indicative of swelling
clays (10 ohm-m)
Triple Combo Log
Density

Lower is better (< 2.53 g/cm3)

Density porosity > 8 pu (LS matrix)

Low density reflects high porosity
and/or high

Triple Combo Log

TOC
Presence of kerogen and/or porosity

Neutron reflects clay content, high
neutron indicative of swelling clays
(>35 pu)

Geochemical
Pyrite
Lower clay content is good

Triple Combo Log
High activity compared to most shales (>150
gAPI)
Not directly correlative to TOC
May not be valid for Cretaceous and Tertiary
shales
Resistivity > 15 ohm-m
High resistivity is good
Reflection of shale maturity / TOC
Low resistivity indicative of swelling clays (10
ohm-m)
Density
Lower is better (< 2.53 g/cm3)
Density porosity > 8 pu (LS matrix)
Low density reflects high porosity and/or high
TOC
Presence of kerogen and/or porosity
Neutron reflects clay content, high neutron
indicative of swelling
clays (>35 pu)
Geochemical
Pyrite
Lower clay content is good

Triple Combo Log
Clay Quantification
Hydrogen index

Clay

Pore water

Kerogen

Thermal absorbers
Reconnaissance
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) Workflows
1. RHOB Vs Core TOC data
Generate local Core TOC vs RHOB algorithm.

Schmoker equation(1979). Popular in North American industry as default.

2. Passey TOC
Based on separation between Sonic and resistivity with overlay in wet clay
rich shale.

Dependent on level of maturity factor.
Need local knowledge and correction above LOM 10.5.?
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) Advanced Workflows
1. ELAN Plus
Generate kerogen volume with ELAN (multi-mineral / multi-log simultaneous solver).

Convert to TOC (wt%) using the methodology by (Rick Lewis, et al, 2004).

2. NMR
Difference between density porosity (geochemical log grain density) and total NMR porosity

need core data (HI).

3. Capture GR spectroscopy (ECS & RST calibrated spectra)
TOC = carbon from epithermal neutron capture spectrum inorganic carbon computed from
thermal neutron capture spectrum

Porosity Determination: Total Porosity vs.
Effective Porosity
Density Lithology
Density Porosity :

There are two inputs into the porosity equation: the matrix density and the fluid density.

The fluid density is that of the fluid seen by the tool, usually mud filtrate but often a
mixture of filtrate and reservoir fluid.
Saturation Determination
Permeability Determination
Permeability, as per Darcy
The rate of flow of a liquid through a formation depends on:
The pressure drop

The viscosity of the fluid

The permeability


The pressure drop is a reservoir property

The viscosity is a fluid property

The permeability is a measure of the ease at which a fluid can flow through a Formation


Relationships exist between permeability and porosity for given formations,
although they are not universal since pore size and tortuosity affect permeability

A rock must have porosity to have any permeability

In shales, because of the nano pore structure, gas flow follows other transport
mechanisms as well (diffusion)
Matrix Permeability
Gas In Place
Free and Total Gas Quantification
Gas In Place
The Industry Standard GIIP calculation for shale plays is:

G total = G free + G ads

Challenges

Challenges

Production from unconventional gas reservoirs is expected to rise in the next
decades.

Developing the Unconventional Gas is a huge challenge to geoscientists faced
with Understanding:

The depositional setting,

Stratigraphy,

Structure,

Geochemistry,

Geomechanics,

Seismic character, and

Petrophysical properties controlling production.
Challenges

Some of the greatest challenges include:

1) Understanding how and where these rocks are charged with gas;

2) What controls the location of highly-productive sweetspots; and

3) What factors, such as sand body size and heterogeneity, account for the
large variations in well drainage areas.
Challenges

To address these challenges oil and gas industry has to focus on the needed
technologies to continue development that address the following challenges:

- Geomechanical, petrophysical and geological characteristics

- Formation evaluation

- Reservoir engineering studies (field/well modeling & simulation)

Challenges

To address these challenges oil and gas industry has to focus on the needed
technologies to continue development that address the following challenges:

- Massive hydraulic-fracturing treatments.

- Advanced drilling: Horizontal, multilateral

- Special completion methods.

Challenges

Understanding of the

geomechanical,

petrophysical and geological properties:

formation strength and in-situ stresses;

Challenges

Lithofacies associations;

Facies distribution in-situ porosity;

Effective gas permeabilities at reservoir conditions;

Capillary pressure; pore size and

Using the United States as an analogy, there is good reason to expect that
unconventional gas production will increase significantly around the world and
in Pakistan in the coming decades for the following reasons (next slide).
Challenges

Usually, volumetric methods do not work in unconventional reservoir because
the proper drainage area to use in the computation is hardly ever known.

One of the most difficult parameters to evaluate in unconventional reservoir is
the drainage-area size and shape.

In unconventional reservoir, months or years of production normally are
required before the pressure transients are affected by reservoir boundaries or
well-to-well interference.

Challenges

Thus, the engineer often has to estimate the drainage-area size and shape for a
typical well to estimate reserves.

It is required to know the depositional system and the effects of diagenesis
(caused by increased pressure and temperature) on the rock to estimate the
drainage area size and shape for a specific well.

Egg-shaped drainage volumes are likely caused by depositional or fracture
trends and the orientation of hydraulic fractures.

Challenges

Also, material balance seldom works in unconventional reservoir because it is
almost impossible to shut in wells long enough to determine the current average
reservoir pressure.

Therefore, the best method to determine reserves in unconventional reservoirs
is to analyze production data by use of either decline curves (production versus
time: hyperbolically decreasing flow rate) or reservoir simulation.
Challenges

Most unconventional reservoirs are not isotropic and homogeneous.

Some reservoirs are naturally fractured, layered with anisotropic permeabilities.

The reservoir-engineering analysis methods must be tailored to better analyze
the processes that occur in unconventional reservoirs.

A common characteristic of unconventional reservoirs is that the formations
can be very thin and/or several hundreds of feet thick.
Challenges

Well completion cost and recovery maximization can be achieved if these
reservoirs are produced with multizone completions, oriented perforating,
massive hydraulic fracturing, and proper logging methods.

Usually gas production from unconventional reservoirs requires some form of
artificial stimulation, such as hydraulic fracturing.

Wells completed in tight reservoir rocks have to be stimulated by one or several
hydraulic fracs in order to achieve an economically adequate production rate.
Challenges

Compared with conventional reservoirs, unconventional reservoirs often show a
much weaker response to the frac treatments, resulting in low production rates
and a high economic risk.

It is known that natural rock fractures are an important factor in the economic
recovery of gas from tight reservoirs.

Advanced methods of gas production in these environments are taking
advantage of gas flow from natural fractures in the reservoir rock.
Challenges

The distribution, orientation, and density of these fractures is key to proper
planning and well scheduling in tight gas reservoirs.

In addition to these physical attributes, reservoir engineers also need detailed
analyses of the effects of interstitial clays and fluids.

The nature of the natural fractures and other characteristics of the reservoir
were sufficiently well-determined that drilling could be accurately directed.
Challenges

WAY FORWARD
WAY FORWARD
Advancements in drilling methods reduce drilling and field development costs
and substantially improve the economics of developing unconventional
reservoirs.

Further modern technologies for the production of unconventional reservoirs
are horizontal and multilateral wells, as well as underbalanced drilling.

Application of advanced techniques like horizontal drilling and technologies that
permit efficient fracturing of multiple zones per well allow gas to migrate a
shorter distance to reach a location where it can enter a well and be produced
with minimum driving force.
When these reservoirs extend vertically for several thousand feet, new
fracturing techniques are required.

To create better solutions adapted for gas, industry researchers will need to
understand underlying flow physics in greater detail.

Gas production from a unconventional well will be low on a per-well basis
compared with gas production from conventional gas reservoirs.
WAY FORWARD
A lot of wells have to be drilled to get most of the gas out of the ground in
unconventional reservoirs.

Geologists, engineers, log analysts, and other professionals have to come to
the common table with a need to better understand and predict reservoir
properties in low-permeability reservoirs, and

Use that information in resource evaluation, reservoir characterization and
management.
WAY FORWARD
There is an enormous volume of unconventional gas to supply world energy
needs for many decades to come to be found and produced.

A bundle of wells have to be drilled to get most of the gas out of the
unconventional reservoirs.

Small well spacing is required to deplete a low-permeability reservoir in a 20- to
30-year time frame.

WAY FORWARD
- The capital cost of unconventional gas production is high because of the need
for more rigs, equipment and people.

The driving forces to bring much of unconventional resources to market are:
increased oil and gas prices;

decline in conventional oil and gas production; and

improvement in drilling,

completion and hydraulic fracturing technologies.
WAY FORWARD
Understanding and predicting reservoir properties, needed for resource
evaluation,

Reservoir characterization and management, in low-permeability reservoirs
requires,

A team work of geoscientists, engineers and other professionals.

WAY FORWARD
Shale Gas in Pakistan
Natural gas is an important factor in meeting the energy demands of Pakistan.

Organic rich shales deposited in marine, transitional marine , and lacustrine settings from
the Precambrian to the Tertiary are widely distributed in Pakistan.

Because of the lack of reliable data on gas content and gas in place which seems
essential for shale gas evaluation, the estimates of the technically recoverable shale gas
resources Pakistan by EIA can be viewed as rather preliminary.

Comparisons Barnet, Woodford, Caney, Fayetteville and
Sembar Shales
Parameters Barnett Woodford Caney/Fayetteville Target Range Sember
Thickness (m) 155-310 30-68 30-93 20-30 50-900
Depth (m) 1860-3100 1860-3700 465-2170 1200-4500 1000-5000
TOC 3-8 3-10 3-8 2-10 0.56-4.33
Silica Content
%
40-60 60-80 60-80 30-80 30-50
Thermal
Maturity (%R
o
)

1.2-2.0 1.1-3.0 1.2-4.0 1.1-3.0 0.7-1.5
Ghazij Shale (Lower Eocene) Thickness (meters)
Vastly Distributed- 100 -1200

Talhar Shale (Mid Cretaceous)
Vastly Distributed 45 -184

Samber Shale (Lower Cretaceous)
Vastly Distributed 500- 600

Chichali Shale (Lower Cretaceous)
Vastly Distributed 35 - 130

Warchha Shale (Permian) 67- 180

Salt Range Shale (Pre-Cambrian) up to 1000 m (in Zakaria-1)
Shale Sequence in Pakistan
Shale Gas Resource (Preliminary Estimates)
Ghazij Shale Gas 20-30 TCF

Talhar Shale Gas 100 TCF

Sember Shale 60-80 TCF

Warchha Shale (Permian) Yet to be calculated

Salt Range Shale (Pre-Cambrian) Yet to be calculated

TOTAL 180-210 (Yet to be corrected)

Courtesy Nazir et al 2011

Depth map at the base of
Sembar Formation, showing
the depth of oil, condensate
and dry gas windows with oil,
oil and gas, condensate and
dry gas wells.
Shale Gas Potential Sembar Formation in Middle and Lower
Indus Basin
Depth map at the Top of
Sembar Formation.
Shale Gas Potential Sembar Formation in Middle and Lower
Indus Basin
Conclusions and Recommendations
Pakistan has a thick sequence of shales from Pre-Cambrian to Recent.

The Salt Range and Warchha Formations may be potential source of shale gas
in the Punjab Platform.

The depositional environment derived by spectral spectral gamma ray logs
shows that the Sember, Warchha and Salt Range Formations were deposited
in reducing environment.

These formations have required clay mineralogy.

The mineralogy derived by spectral gamma ray logs must be verified with other
means (XRD and SEM).

The calculations of Langmuir Isotherm would help us to estimate the exact
volume of the gas present in the shale.
Exercises

Shale Characterization

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