Aliasing & Antialiasing

Aaron Bloomfield
CS 445: Introduction to Graphics
Fall 2006
(Slide set originally by David Luebke)
2
Overview
Introduction
Signal Processing
Sampling Theorem
Prefiltering
Supersampling
Continuous Antialiasing
Catmull's Algorithm
The A-Buffer
Stochastic Sampling
3
Antialiasing
Aliasing: signal processing term with very specific
meaning
Aliasing: computer graphics term for any unwanted
visual artifact
Antialiasing: computer graphics term for avoiding
unwanted artifacts
Well tackle these in order
4

No anti-aliasing
5

5 sample anti-aliasing
6

16 sample anti-aliasing
7
Overview
Introduction
Signal Processing
Sampling Theorem
Prefiltering
Supersampling
Continuous Antialiasing
Catmull's Algorithm
The A-Buffer
Stochastic Sampling
8
Signal Processing
Raster display: regular sampling of a continuous
function (Really?)
Think about sampling a 1-D function:
9
Signal Processing
Sampling a 1-D function:
10
Signal Processing
Sampling a 1-D function:
11
Signal Processing
Sampling a 1-D function:
What do you notice?
12
Signal Processing
Sampling a 1-D function: what do you notice?
Jagged, not smooth
13
Signal Processing
Sampling a 1-D function: what do you notice?
Jagged, not smooth
Loses information!
14
Signal Processing
Sampling a 1-D function: what do you notice?
Jagged, not smooth
Loses information!
What can we do about these?
Use higher-order reconstruction
Use more samples
How many more samples?
15
Overview
Introduction
Signal Processing
Sampling Theorem
Prefiltering
Supersampling
Continuous Antialiasing
Catmull's Algorithm
The A-Buffer
Stochastic Sampling
16
The Sampling Theorem
Obviously, the more samples we take the better
those samples approximate the original function
The Nyquist sampling theorem:
A continuous bandlimited function can be completely represented
by a set of equally spaced samples, if the samples occur at more
than twice the frequency of the highest frequency component of the
function

17
The Sampling Theorem
In other words, to adequately capture a function
with maximum frequency F, we need to sample it
at frequency N = 2F.
N is called the Nyquist limit.

The Nyquist sampling theorem applied to CDs
Most humans can hear to 20 kHz
Some (like me!) to 22 kHz
CDs are sampled at 44.1 kHz
Although not twice the highest frequency component, it is twice
the highest frequency component that can be (generally) heard
18
The Sampling Theorem
An example: sinusoids
19
The Sampling Theorem
An example: sinusoids
20
Fourier Theory
All our examples have been sinusoids
Does this help with real world signals? Why?
Fourier theory lets us decompose any signal into
the sum of (a possibly infinite number of) sine
waves


21
Overview
Introduction
Signal Processing
Sampling Theorem
Prefiltering
Supersampling
Continuous Antialiasing
Catmull's Algorithm
The A-Buffer
Stochastic Sampling
22
Prefiltering
Eliminate high frequencies before sampling (Foley
& van Dam p. 630)
Convert I(x) to F(u)
Apply a low-pass filter
A low-pass filter allows low frequencies through, but attenuates
(or reduces) high frequencies
Then sample. Result: no aliasing!
23
Prefiltering

24
Prefiltering

25
Prefiltering
So whats the problem?
Problem: most rendering algorithms generate
sampled function directly
e.g., Z-buffer, ray tracing
26
Overview
Introduction
Signal Processing
Sampling Theorem
Prefiltering
Supersampling
Continuous Antialiasing
Catmull's Algorithm
The A-Buffer
Stochastic Sampling
27
Supersampling
The simplest way to reduce aliasing artifacts is
supersampling
Increase the resolution of the samples
Average the results down
For now, well assume that the samples are evenly
spaced
In the Stochastic Sampling section, well see other
ways of doing it
Sometimes called postfiltering
Create virtual image at higher resolution than the final
image
Apply a low-pass filter
Resample filtered image
28
Supersampling: Limitations
Q: What practical consideration hampers super-
sampling?
A: Storage goes up quadratically
Q: What theoretical problem does supersampling
suffer?
A: Doesnt eliminate aliasing! Supersampling
simply shifts the Nyquist limit higher
29
Supersampling: Worst Case
Q: Give a simple scene containing infinite
frequencies
A: A checkered ground plane receding into infinity
See next slide
30

31
Supersampling
Despite these limitations, people still use super-
sampling (why?)
So how can we best perform it?
32
Supersampling
The process:
1. Create virtual image at higher resolution than the final
image
2. Apply a low-pass filter
3. Resample filtered image
33
Supersampling: Step 1
Create virtual image at higher resolution than the
final image
This is easy
34
Supersampling: Step 2
Apply a low-pass filter
Convert to frequency
domain
Multiply by a box
function
Expensive! Can we
simplify this?
Recall: multiplication
in frequency equals
convolution in space, so
Just convolve initial sampled image with the FT of a box
function
Isnt this a lot of work?
35
Supersampling: Digital Convolution
In practice, we combine steps 2 & 3:
Create virtual image at higher resolution than the final
image
Apply a low-pass filter
Resample filtered image
Idea: only create filtered image at new sample
points
I.e., only convolve filter with image at new points
36
Supersampling: Digital Convolution
Q: What does convolving a filter with an image
entail at each sample point?
A: Multiplying and summing values
Example:
1 2 1
2 4 2
1 2 1

1 2 1
2 4 2
1 2 1
=
1 2 1
2 4 2
1 2 1
=

37
Supersampling
Typical supersampling algorithm:
Compute multiple samples per pixel
Combine sample values for pixels value using simple
average
Q: What filter does this equate to?
A: Box filter -- one of the worst!
Q: Whats wrong with box filters?
Passes infinitely high frequencies
Attenuates desired frequencies
38
Supersampling
Common filters:
Truncated sinc
sinc(x) = sin(x)/x
Box
Triangle
Guassian

39
Supersampling In Practice
Sinc function: ideal but impractical
One approximation: sinc
2

Another: Gaussian falloff
Q: How wide (what res) should filter be?
A: As wide as possible (duh)
In practice: 3x3, 5x5, at most 7x7
In other words, the filter is larger than the final pixel
So we are using the values of neighboring pixels
This creates a better visual effect
40
Supersampling: Summary
Supersampling improves aliasing artifacts by
shifting the Nyquist limit
It works by calculating a high-res image and
filtering down to final res
Filtering down means simultaneous convolution
and resampling
This equates to a weighted average
Wider filter better results more work

41
Summary So Far
Prefiltering
Before sampling the image, use a low-pass filter to
eliminate frequencies above the Nyquist limit
This blurs the image
But ensures that no high frequencies will be
misrepresented as low frequencies
42
Summary So Far
Supersampling
Sample image at higher resolution than final image, then
average down
Average down means multiply by low-pass function in
frequency domain
Which means convolving by that functions FT in space
domain
Which equates to a weighted average of nearby
samples at each pixel
43
Summary So Far
Supersampling cons
Doesnt eliminate aliasing, just shifts the Nyquist limit
higher
Cant fix some scenes (e.g., checkerboard)
Badly inflates storage requirements
Supersampling pros
Relatively easy
Often works all right in practice
Can be added to a standard renderer
44
Overview
Introduction
Signal Processing
Sampling Theorem
Prefiltering
Supersampling
Continuous Antialiasing
Catmull's Algorithm
The A-Buffer
Stochastic Sampling
45
Antialiasing in the Continuous Domain
Problem with prefiltering:
Sampling and image generation inextricably linked in
most renderers
Z-buffer algorithm
Ray tracing
Why?
Still, some approaches try to approximate effect of
convolution in the continuous domain
46
Antialiasing in the Continuous Domain
Pixel
Grid
Polygons
Filter kernel
47
Antialiasing in the Continuous Domain
The good news
Exact polygon coverage of the filter kernel can be
evaluated
What does this entail?
Clipping
Hidden surface determination
48
Antialiasing in the Continuous Domain
The bad news
Evaluating coverage is very expensive
The intensity variation is too complex to integrate over
the area of the filter
Q: Why does intensity make it harder?
A: Because polygons might not be flat- shaded
Q: How bad a problem is this?
A: Intensity varies slowly within a pixel, so shape changes are
more important
49
Overview
Introduction
Signal Processing
Sampling Theorem
Prefiltering
Supersampling
Continuous Antialiasing
Catmull's Algorithm
The A-Buffer
Stochastic Sampling
50
Catmulls Algorithm
A
B

A
1

A
2

A
3

Find fragment
areas
Multiply by
fragment colors
Sum for final
pixel color
51
Catmulls Algorithm
First real attempt to filter in continuous domain
Very expensive
Clipping polygons to fragments
Sorting polygon fragments by depth (Whats wrong with
this as a hidden surface algorithm?)
Equates to box filter (Is that good?)
52
Overview
Introduction
Signal Processing
Sampling Theorem
Prefiltering
Supersampling
Continuous Antialiasing
Catmull's Algorithm
The A-Buffer
Stochastic Sampling
53
The A-Buffer
Idea: approximate continuous filtering by subpixel
sampling
Summing areas now becomes simple

54
The A-Buffer
Advantages:
Incorporating into scanline renderer reduces storage
costs dramatically
Processing per pixel depends only on number of visible
fragments
Can be implemented efficiently using bitwise logical ops
on subpixel masks
55
The A-Buffer
Disadvantages
Still basically a supersampling algorithm
Not a hardware-friendly algorithm
Lists of potentially visible polygons can grow without limit
Work per-pixel non-deterministic
56
Recap: Antialiasing Strategies
Supersampling: sample at
higher resolution, then filter
down
Pros:
Conceptually simple
Easy to retrofit existing
renderers
Works well most of the time
Cons:
High storage costs
Doesnt eliminate aliasing,
just shifts Nyquist limit
upwards
A-Buffer: approximate pre-
filtering of continuous
signal by sampling
Pros:
Integrating with scan-line
renderer keeps storage
costs low
Can be efficiently
implemented with clever
bitwise operations
Cons:
Still basically a super-
sampling approach
Doesnt integrate with ray-
tracing

57
Overview
Introduction
Signal Processing
Sampling Theorem
Prefiltering
Supersampling
Continuous Antialiasing
Catmull's Algorithm
The A-Buffer
Stochastic Sampling
58
Stochastic Sampling
Stochastic: involving or containing a random
variable
Sampling theory tells us that with a regular
sampling grid, frequencies higher than the Nyquist
limit will alias
Q: What about irregular sampling?
A: High frequencies appear as noise, not aliases
This turns out to bother our visual system less!
59
Stochastic Sampling
An intuitive argument:
In stochastic sampling, every region of the image has a
finite probability of being sampled
Thus small features that fall between uniform sample
points tend to be detected by non-uniform samples
60
Stochastic Sampling
Integrating with different renderers:
Ray tracing:
It is just as easy to fire a ray one direction as another
Z-buffer: hard, but possible
Notable example: REYES system (?)
Using image jittering is easier (more later)
A-buffer: nope
Totally built around square pixel filter and primitive-to-sample
coherence
61
Stochastic Sampling
Idea: randomizing distribution of samples scatters
aliases into noise
Problem: what type of random distribution
to adopt?
Reason: type of randomness used affects spectral
characteristics of noise into which high frequencies
are converted
62
Stochastic Sampling
Problem: given a pixel, how to distribute points
(samples) within it?






Grid Random Poisson Disc Jitter
63
Stochastic Sampling
Poisson distribution:
Completely random
Add points at random until area is full.
Uniform distribution: some neighboring
samples close together, some distant
64
Stochastic Sampling
Poisson disc distribution:
Poisson distribution, with minimum-
distance constraint between samples
Add points at random, removing
again if they are too close to any
previous points
Very even-looking distribution
65
Stochastic Sampling
Jittered distribution
Start with regular grid of samples
Perturb each sample slightly in a
random direction
More clumpy or granular in appearance
66
Stochastic Sampling
Spectral characteristics of these distributions:
Poisson: completely uniform (white noise). High and low
frequencies equally present
Poisson disc: Pulse at origin (DC component of image),
surrounded by empty ring (no low frequencies),
surrounded by white noise
Jitter: Approximates Poisson disc spectrum, but with a
smaller empty disc.
67
Stochastic Sampling
Watt & Watt, p. 134
See Foley & van Dam, p 644-645
Should have images next time