High Rise Structures

A high-rise is a tall building or structure

Buildings between 75 feet and 491 feet (23 m to

150 m) high are considered highrises! Buildings
taller than 492 feet (150 m) are classi"ed as
s#$scra%ers!

&he materials used for the structural s$stem of

highrise buildings are reinforced concrete and
steel! 'ost American st$le s#$scra%ers ha(e a
steel frame) while residential tower bloc#s are
usuall$ constructed out of concrete!

*ighrise structures ha(e certain features! &he

structures are high + lead to higher (ertical loads
and higher lateral loads (mainl$ due to wind stress)
in com%arison with lower buildings!
LOADS ON THE HIGHRISE STRUCTURES

Vertical Loads

,ead loads arise from the weigh to the indi(idual

construction elements and the "nishing loads!

-i(e loads are de%endent on use de%ending on the

number of stories. li(e loads can be reduced for
load transfer and the dimensioning of (ertical load
bearing elements! *owe(er) the reduction of the
total li(e load on a construction element ma$ not
e/ceed 400!

Horio!tal Loads

1alculation of lateral loads should be carefull$

scrutini2ed!

3t generall$ arises from une/%ected de4ections)

wind and earth5ua#e loads
U!e"#ected De$ectio!s

3t arises from im%recision in the manufacture of

construction elements and larger com%onents!

Another cause is the une(en settling of the

foundation at an inhomogeneous site!

An$ de4ection %roduces additional lateral forces!

%i!d Loads

*ighrise buildings are susce%tible to oscillation! 3t

should not be (iewed as staticall$ e5ui(alent loads)
but must be in(estigated under the as%ect of swa$
beha(iour!

6ind tunnel e/%eriments are used to see the

in4uence of the building7s sha%e on the wind load!

&he abilit$ of wind loads to bring a building to swa$

must also be #e%t in mind! &his oscillation leads both
to a %erce%tible lateral acceleration for occu%ants)
and to a ma/imum lateral de4ection!
Earth&ua'e Loads
De(!itio!

8eismolog$ (from the 9ree# seismos: earth5ua#e

and logos: word)

scienti"c stud$ of earth5ua#es

%ro%agation of elastic wa(es through the ;arth!

studies of earth5ua#e e<ects) such as tsunamis

di(erse seismic sources such as (olcanic) tectonic)

oceanic) atmos%heric) and arti"cial %rocesses such as
e/%losions!

Earth&ua'e

=roduce di<erent t$%es of seismic wa(es!

3t tra(el through roc#) and %ro(ide an e<ecti(e wa$ to

image both sources and structures dee% within the
;arth!
Seis)ic %a*es

&here are three basic t$%es of seismic wa(es in solids>

=wa(es

8wa(es

=and?or 8wa(es!

&he two basic #inds of surface wa(es (@aleigh and

-o(e)!
+ressure ,a*es-.+ri)ar/ ,a*es .+-,a*es-

&ra(el at the greatest (elocit$ within solids and are

therefore the "rst wa(es to a%%ear on a seismogram!

=wa(es are fundamentall$ %ressure disturbances that

%ro%agate through a material b$ alternatel$
com%ressing and e/%anding (dilating) the medium)
where %article motion is %arallel to the direction of
wa(e %ro%agation!
Shear ,a*es.seco!dar/ ,a*es.S-,a*es-

&rans(erse wa(es that tra(el more slowl$ than =

wa(es and thus a%%ear later than =wa(es on a
seismogram!

=article motion is %er%endicular to the direction of

wa(e %ro%agation! 8hear wa(es do not e/ist in 4uids
such as air or water!
T/#e o0 High-Rise Structure

Braced Brame

@igid Brame 8tructure

3n"lled Brame 8tructure

Blat =late and Blat 8lab 8tructure

8hear wall structure

1ou%led wall structure

6allframe structure

Bramed tube structure

&he trussed tube

&ube in tube or *ull core structure

Bundled tube structure

1ore and Cutriggers s$stem

*$brid structure
1raced 2ra)e

Braced frames are cantile(ered (ertical trusses

resisting laterals loads %rimaril$ through the a/ial
sti<ness of the frame members!

&he e<ecti(eness of the s$stem) as characteri2ed b$

a high ratio of sti<ness to material 5uantit$) is
recogni2ed for multistore$ building in the low to mid
height range!

9enerall$ regarded as an e/clusi(el$ steel s$stem

because the diagonal are ine(itabl$ subDected to
tension for or to the other directions of lateral loading!

Able to %roduce a laterall$ (er$ sti< structure for a

minimum of additional material) ma#es it an
economical structural form for an$ height of buildings)
u% to the (er$ tallest!
Ad*a!tages3
9irders onl$ %artici%ate minimall$ in the lateral bracing
actionBloor framing design is inde%endent of its le(el in
the structure!
1an be re%etiti(e u% the height of the building with
ob(ious econom$ in design and fabrication!

Disad*a!tages3
Cbstruct the internal %lanning and the locations of the
windows and doors. for this reason) braced bent are
usuall$ incor%orated internall$ along wall and %artition
lines) es%eciall$ around ele(ator) stair) and ser(ice shaft!
,iagonal connections are e/%ensi(e to fabricate and
erect!
ACT To,er- Hi)atsu
4a#a!
Rigid 2ra)e Structure

1onsist of columns and girders Doined b$ moment

resistant connections!

-ateral sti<ness of a rigid frame bent de%ends on the

bending sti<ness of the columns) girders) and
connection in the %lane of the bents! 3deall$ suited for
reinforced concrete buildings because of the inherent
rigidit$ of reinforced concrete Doints! Also used for
steel frame buildings) but momentresistant
connections in steel tend to be costl$!

6hile rigid frame of a t$%ical scale that ser(e alone to

resist lateral loading ha(e an economic height limit of
about 25 stories) smaller scale rigid frames in the for
of %erimeter tube) or t$%icall$ rigid frames in
combination with shear walls or braced bents) can be
economic u% to% much greater heights!
Ad*a!tages3
'a$ be %lace in or around the core) on
the e/terior) or throughout the interior of
the building with minimal constraint on
the %lanning module!
&he frame ma$ be architecturall$
e/%osed to e/%ress the grid li#e nature of
the structure!
&he s%acing of the columns in a moment
resisting frame can match that re5uired
for gra(it$ framing!
Cnl$ suitable for building u% to 20 E30
storiesonl$. member %ro%ortions and
materials cost become unreasonable for
building higher than that!
2ig5 %TC OSA6A 4A+AN
I!-(lled 2ra)e
Structure

'ost usual form of construction for

tall buildings u% to 30 stories in
height 1olumn and girder framing of
reinforced concrete) or sometimes
steel) is in"lled b$ %anels of
bric#wor#) bloc# wor#) or castin
%lace concrete! Because of the in
"lled ser(e also as e/ternal walls or
internal %artitions) the s$stem is an
economical wa$ of sti<ening and
strengthening the structure! &he
com%le/ interacti(e beha(iour of the
in"ll in the frame) and the rather
random 5ualit$ of masonr$) has
made it diFcult to %redict with
accurac$ the sti<ness and strength
of an in"lled frame!
2lat-+late a!d 2lat Sla7 Structure

3s the sim%lest and most logical of all structural forms in

that it consists of uniforms slabs) connected rigidl$ to
su%%orting columns!
&he s$stem) which is essentiall$ of reinforced concrete) is
(er$ economical in ha(ing a 4at soFt re5uiring the most
uncom%licated formwor# and) because of the soFt can be
used as the ceiling) in creating a minimum %ossible 4oor
de%th!
-ateral resistance de%ends on the 4e/ural sti<ness of the
com%onents and their connections) with the slab
corres%onding to the girder of the rigid frame!
=articularl$ a%%ro%riate for hotel and a%artment
construction where ceiling s%ace is not re5uired and where
the slab ma$ ser(e directl$ as the ceiling!
;conomic for s%ans u% to about 25 ft (Gm))abo(e which
dro% %anels can be added to create a 4atslab structure for
s%an of u% to 3G ft (12m)!
8uitable for building u% to 25 stories height!
Shear %all Structure

1oncrete or masonr$ continuous (ertical walls ma$

ser(e both architecturall$ %artitions and structurall$
to carr$ gra(it$ and lateral loading!

Her$ high in %lane sti<ness and strength ma#e

them ideall$ suited for bracing tall building Act as
(ertical cantile(ers in the form of se%arate %lanar
walls) and as non%lanar assemblies of connected
walls around ele(ator) stair and ser(ice shaft! well
suited to hotel and residential buildings where the
4oorb$ 4oor re%etiti(e %lanning allow the walls to
be (erticall$ continuous and where the$ ser(e
simultaneousl$ as e/cellent acoustic and "re
insulators between rooms and a%artments!
'inimum shrin#age restraint reinforcement where the wall
stresses are low) which can be for a substantial %ortion of the
wall!
&ensile reinforcement for areas where tension stresses occur
in walls when wind u%lifts stresses e/ceeds gra(it$ stresses!
1om%ressi(e reinforcement with con"nement ties where
high com%ressi(e forces re5uire the walls is designed as
columns! 3ndi(idual shear walls) sa$ at the edge of a tall
building) are design as blade walls or as columns resisting
shear and bending as re5uired!
*igh strength concrete has enable wall thic#ness to be
minimi2ed) hence ma/imi2ing rentable 4oor s%ace!
&echnolog$ e/ists to %um% and to %lace highstrength
concrete at high ele(ation!
Bire rating for ser(ice and %assenger ele(ator shafts is
achie(ed b$ sim%l$ %lacing concrete of a determined
thic#ness!
&he need for com%le/ bolted or sidewelded steel
connections is a(oided!
6ell detail reinforce concrete will de(elo% about twice as
much dam%ing as structural steel! &his ad(antage where
acceleration ser(iceabilit$ is critical limits state) or for
ultimate limits state design in earth5ua#e%rone area!
+ro7le) associated ,ith
0or),or' s/ste)s3

A signi"cant time lag will occur

between footing construction and
wall construction) because of the
fabrication and erection on site of
the mo(ing formwor# s$stems

&ime will be lost at the le(els where

wall are terminated or decrease in
thic#ness) alignment of the shear
walls are within tolerance!

@egular sur(e$ chec# must be

underta#en to ensure that the
(ertical and twist alignment of the
shear walls are within tolerance!

3n general it is diFcult to achie(e a

good "nish from sli%form formwor#
s$stems) and hence rendering or
some other t$%e of "nishing ma$ be
necessar$
Cou#led %all Structure

1onsist of two or more shear walls in the same %lan) or

almost the same %lan) connected at the 4oor le(els b$ beam
or sti< slabs!
&he e<ect of the shearresistant connecting members is to
cause the sets of wall to beha(e in their %artl$ as a com%osite
cantile(er) bending about the common centroidal a/is of the
walls!
8uited for residential construction where lateralload
resistant cross walls) which se%arate the a%artments) consist
of in%lane cou%led %airs) or trios) of shear walls between
which there are corridor or window o%enings! Besides using
concrete construction) it occasionall$ been constructed of
hea($ steel %late) in the st$le of massi(e (ertical %late or bo/
girders) as %art of steel frame structure!
%all-2ra)e Structure

&he walls and frame interact hori2ontall$)

es%eciall$ at the to%) to %roduce sti<er and
stronger structure! &he interacting wallframe
combination is a%%ro%riate for the building in
the 40 EI0 stor$ range) well be$ond that of
rigid frames or shear walls alone!
1arefull$ tuned structure) the shear of the
frame can be made a%%ro/imatel$ uniform
o(er the height) allowing the 4oor framing to
be re%etiti(e! Although the wallframe
structure is usuall$ %ercei(ed as a concrete
structural form) with shear wall and concrete
frames) a steel counter%art using braced
frames and steel rigid frames o<ers similar
bene"ts of hori2ontal interaction!
&he braced frames beha(e with an o(erall
4e/ural tendenc$ to interact with the shear
mode of the rigid frames!
The Trussed tu7e

&he trussed tube s$stem re%resents a classic

solution for a tube uni5uel$ suited to the
5ualities and character of structural steel!
3nterconnect all e/terior columns to form a rigid
bo/) which can resist lateral shears b$ a/ial in its
members rather than through 4e/ure!
3ntroducing a minimum number of diagonals on
each faJade and ma#ing the diagonal intersect
at the same %oint at the corner column!
&he s$stem is tubular in that the fascia
diagonals not onl$ form a truss in the %lane) but
also interact with the trusses on the
%er%endicular faces to a<ect the tubular
beha(iour! &his creates the / form between
corner columns on each faJade!
@elati(el$ broad column s%acing can resulted
large clear s%aces for windows) a %articular
characteristic of steel buildings!
&he faJade digitalisation ser(es to e5uali2e the
gra(it$ loads of the e/terior columns that gi(e a
signi"cant im%act on the e/terior architecture!
Tu7e-i!-Tu7e or Hull Core
Structure

&his (ariation of the framed tube consists

of an outer frame tube) the K*ull)L
together with an internal ele(ator and
ser(ice core!
&he *ull and core act Dointl$ in resisting
both gra(it$ and lateral loading!
&he outer framed tube and the inner core
interact hori2ontall$ as the shear and
4e/ural com%onents of a wallframe
structure) with the bene"t of increased
lateral sti<ness!
&he structural tube usuall$ ado%ts a
highl$ dominant role because of its much
greater structural de%th!
1u!dled-Tu7e structures

&he conce%t allows for wider column s%acing in the tubular walls
than would be %ossible with onl$ the e/terior frame tube form!
&he s%acing which ma#e it %ossible to %lace interior frame lines
without seriousl$ com%romising interior s%ace %lanning!
&he abilit$ to modulate the cells (erticall$ can create a %owerful
(ocabular$ for a (ariet$ of d$namic sha%es therefore o<ers great
latitude in architectural %lanning of a tall building!
Core a!d Outrigger S/ste)s

Cutrigger ser(e to reduce the o(erturning moment in

the core that would otherwise act as a %ure
cantile(er) and to transfer the reduced moment to
columns outside the core b$ the wa$ of tension
com%ression cou%led) which ta#e ad(antage of the
increase moment arm between these columns!

3t also ser(es to reduce the critical connection where

the mast is ste%%ed to the #eel beam!

3n highrise building this same bene"t is reali2ed b$

a reduction of the base core o(erturning moments
and the associated reduction in the %otential core
u%lift forces!
3n the foundations s$stem) this core and outrigger
s$stem can lead to the need for the following>

&he addition of e/%ensi(e and labourintensi(e roc#

anchors to an otherwise Ksim%leL foundation
alternati(e such as s%read footing!

9reatl$ enlarged mat dimensions and de%th solel$ to

resist o(erturning forces!

&imeconsuming and costl$ roc# soc#ets for caisson

s$stems along with the need to de(elo% reinforcement
throughout the com%lete caisson de%th!

;/%ensi(e and intensi(e "eld wor# connection at the

interface between core and the foundation! &his
connection can become %articularl$ troublesome when
one considers the di<erence in construction tolerances
between foundations and core structure!

&he elimination from consideration of foundation

s$stems which might ha(e been nsiderabl$ less
e/%ensi(e) such as %ile) solel$ for their inabilit$ to
resist signi"cant u%lift!
Ad*a!tages3
&he outrigger s$stems ma$ be formed in an$ combination of
steel) concrete) or com%osite construction!
1ore o(erturning moments and their associated induced
deformation can be reduced through the Kre(erseL moment
a%%lied to the core at each outrigger intersection! &his moment is
created b$ the force cou%le at the e/terior columns to which the
outrigger connect! 3t can %otentiall$ increase the e<ecti(e de%th
of the structural s$stem from the core onl$ to almost the
com%lete building!
8igni"cant reduction and %ossibl$ the com%lete elimination of
u%lift and net tension forces throughout the column and the
foundation s$stems!
&he e/terior column s%acing is not dri(en b$ structural
considerations and can easil$ mesh with aesthetic and functional
considerations!
;/terior framing can consist of Ksim%leL beam and column
framing without the need for rigidframet$%e connections)
resulting in economies!
Bor rectangular buildings) outriggers can engage the middle
columns on the long faces of the building under the a%%lication of
wind loads in the more critical direction! 3n corealone and tubular
s$stems) these columns which carr$ signi"cant gra(it$ load are
either not incor%orated or under utili2ed! 3n some cases)
outrigger s$stems can eFcientl$ incor%orate almost e(er$
gra(it$ column into lateral load resisting s$stem) leading to
signi"cant economies!
Disad*a!tages
&he most signi"cant drawbac# with use of outrigger s$stems is
their %otential interference with occu%iable and rentable s%ace!
&his obstacle can be minimi2ed or in some cases eliminate b$
incor%oration of an$ of the following a%%roaches>
-ocating outrigger in mechanical and interstitial le(els
-ocating outriggers in the natural slo%ing lines of the building
%ro"le
3ncor%orating multile(el single diagonal outriggers to minimi2e
the member7s interference on an$ single le(el!
8#ewing and o<setting outriggers in order to mesh with the
functional la$out of the 4oor s%ace!
Another %otential drawbac# is the im%act the outrigger
installation can ha(e on the erection %rocess! As a t$%ical building
erection %roceeds) the re%etiti(e nature of the structural framing
and the reduction in member si2es generall$ result in a learning
cur(e which can s%eed the %rocess along!
H/7rid Structure

1ombination of two or e(en more of basic structural forms

either b$ direct combination or b$ ado%ting di<erent forms in
di<erent %arts of the structure! &his s$stems %ro(ide in%lane
sti<ness) its lac# of &orsional sti<ness re5uires that additional
measures be ta#en) which resulted in one ba$ (ertical e/terior
bracing and a number of le(el of %erimeter Hierendeel
KbandagesL E%erha%s one of the best e/am%les of the art of
structural engineering! *$brid structures are li#el$ to be the
rule rather than the e/ce%tion for future (er$ tall buildings)
whether to create acce%table d$namic characteristics or to
accommodate the com%le/ sha%es demanded b$ modern
architecture! *ighstrength concrete) consist of sti<ness and
dam%ing ca%abilities of large concrete elements are combined
with the lightness and constructabilit$ of steel frame e/hibits
signi"cantl$ lower cree% and shrin#age and is therefore more
readil$ accommodated in a h$brid frame!