Chapter 2

Control Loop Hardware

and Troubleshooting
Overall Course Objectives
Develop the skills necessary to function as
an industrial process control engineer.
Skills
Tuning loops
Control loop design
Control loop troubleshooting
Command of the terminology
Fundamental understanding
Process dynamics
Feedback control
Control Relevant Aspects of
Control Loop Hardware
Necessary for control loop troubleshooting:
To determine if each subsystem (control
computer, actuator system, and sensor system)
is functioning properly
To understand the proper design and operation
of all the components that make-up each of the
subsystems of a control loop
Control Diagram of a Typical
Control Loop
Controller
F
1
T
1
T
F
F
2
T
2
TC
Actuator
System
TT
Sensor
System
Components and Signals of a
Typical Control Loop
T
F
F
2
T
2
Thermocouple
millivolt signal
Transmitter
4-20 mA
DCS
Control
Computer
3-15 psig
4-20 mA
Operator
Console
T
sp
I/P
Air
F
1
T
1
Thermowell
Actuator System
Controller
Sensor System
D/A
A/D
Controllers/Control Computers
Pneumatic controllers
Electronic analog controllers
Supervisory control computers
Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
Fieldbus technology
Pneumatic Controllers - Phase I
Introduced in the 1920s
Installed in the field next to the valve
Use bellows, baffles, and nozzles with an
air supply to implement PID action.
Provided automatic control and replaced
manual control for many loops
Pneumatic Controllers - Phase II
Transmitter type pneumatic controllers
began to replace field mounted controllers
in the late 1930s.
Controller located in control room with
pneumatic transmission from sensors to
control room and back to the valve.
Allowed operators to address a number of
controllers from a centralized control room.
Pneumatic Controller Installation
Transmitter
Pnuematic
Controller
3-15 psig
Air
3-15 psig
Air
Thermowell
F
1
T
1
F
2
T
2
F
T
Thermocouple
millivolt signal
T
sp
Electronic Analog Controllers
Became available in the late 1950s.
Replaced the pneumatic tubing with wires.
Used resistors, capacitors, and transistors
based amplifiers to implement PID action.
Out sold pneumatic controllers by 1970.
Allowed for advanced PID control: ratio,
feedforward, etc.
Electronic Controller Installation
Transmitter
Electronic
Controller
3-15 psig
Air
4-20 mA
Thermowell
F
1
T
1
F
2
T
2
F
T
Thermocouple
millivolt signal
T
sp
4-20 mA
I/P
Computer Control System
Based upon a mainframe digital computer.
Offered the ability to use data storage and
retrieval, alarm functions, and process
optimization.
First installed on a refinery in 1959.
Had reliability limitations.
Supervisory Control Computer
Printer
Video Display
Unit
Interfacing
Hardware
Analog
Control
Subsytem
Alarming
Functions
Supervisory Control Computer
Data Storage
Acquisition
System
...
Distributed Control System- DCS
Introduced in the late 1970s.
Based upon redundant microprocessors for
performing control functions for a part of
the plant. SUPERIOR RELIABILITY
Less expensive per loop for large plants.
Less expensive to expand.
Facilitates the use of advanced control.
DCS Architecture
Process Transmitters and Actuators
Data Highway
(Shared Communication Facilities)
......
Data
Storage Unit
Host
Computer
System
Consoles
PLC
4-20 mA
Local
Console
Local
Control
Unit
4-20 mA
Local
Control
Unit
Local
Console
DCS and Troubleshooting
The data storage and trending capability of
a DCS greatly facilitate troubleshooting
control problems. That is, the sources of
process upsets can many times be tracked
down through the process by trending a
group of process measurements until the
source of the process upset is located.
Control Relevant Aspects of a
DCS
The most important control aspect of a DCS
is the cycle time for controller calls. The
shortest cycles times are typically around
0.2 seconds while most loops can be
executed every 0.5 to 1.0 seconds. These
cycle times affect flow control loops and
other fast control loops.
PLCs
PLCs can withstand has industrial
enviroments.
PLCs are used for discrete and continuous
control.
Discrete control is used for startup and
shutdown and batch sequencing operations.
Ladder logic is used to program PLCs.
PLCs vs. DCSs
Advantage of PLCs:
Better to withstand harsh operating enviroments,
faster cycle time are possible, easier to maintain
due to modular nature and lower cost for small
and medium sized applications.
Advantage of DCSs:
Lower cost per loop for applications involving a
large number of control loops.
PLC Architecture
Processor
Power
Supply
Data Highway
PLC Cabinet
Programming
Interface
I/O Modules
Input
Devices
Output
Devices
Fieldbus Technology
Based upon smart valves, smart sensors and
controllers installed in the field.
Uses data highway to replace wires from
sensor to DCS and to the control valves.
Less expensive installations and better
reliability.
Can mix different sources (vendors) of
sensors, transmitters, and control valves.
Now commercially available and should
begin to replace DCSs.

Fieldbus Architecture
Plant Optimization
.................
Smart
Sensors
Smart Control
Valves and
Controllers
Local
Area
Network
Smart
Sensors
Smart Control
Valves and
Controllers
Local
Area
Network
H1 Fieldbus Network H1 Fieldbus Network
H1 Fieldbus H1 Fieldbus
Data Storage
PLCs
High Speed Ethernet
Actuator System
Control Valve
Valve body
Valve actuator
I/P converter
Instrument air system
Typical Globe Control Valve
Cross-section of a Globe Valve
Types of Globe Valves
Quick Opening- used for safety by-pass
applications where quick opening is desired
Equal Percentage- used for about 90% of
control valve applications since it results in
the most linear installed characteristics
Linear- used when a relatively constant
pressure drop is maintained across the valve
Inherent Valve Characteristics
0
0.5
1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Stem Position (% Open)
f
(
x
)
=%
QO
Linear
Use of the Valve Flow Equation
Given: water as the fluid; 16psig; 5
Determine the flow rate through this control
valve. Using Equation 2.3.3,
/ . . (1)(5) 16/1 20 gpm
v
V v
P C
F KC p s g


Typical Flow System
C.W.
FT
Pressure Drop vs. Flow Rate
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 50 100 150 200
Flow Rate (GPM)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

D
r
o
p

(
p
s
i
)
Line Losses
Pump Head
Valve

P
Installed Flow Characteristic
0
50
100
150
200
0 20 40 60 80 100
Stem Position (% Open)
I
n
s
t
a
l
l
e
d

F
l
o
w

R
a
t
e

(
G
P
M
)
Linear Valve
=% Valve
Slope of Installed Characteristic
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 20 40 60 80 100
Stem Position (% Open)
S
l
o
p
e

o
f

t
h
e

I
n
s
t
a
l
l
e
d

F
l
o
w

C
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
Linear
Valve
=% Valve
Effect of Linearity in the
Installed Valve Characteristics
Highly nonlinear installed characteristics
can lead to unstable flow control or a
sluggish performance for the flow
controller.
Flow System with Relatively
Constant Valve Pressure Drop
30 ft
FT
Pressure Drop vs. Flow Rate
0
5
10
15
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Flow Rate (GPM)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

D
r
o
p

(
p
s
i
)
Line Losses
Valve

P
Hydrostatic Head
Installed Valve Characteristics
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0 20 40 60 80 100
Stem Position (% Open)
I
n
s
t
a
l
l
e
d

F
l
o
w

R
a
t
e

(
G
P
M
)
Linear Valve
=% Valve
Analysis of These Examples
Note the linear installed valve
characteristics over a wide range of stem
positions.
If the ratio of pressure drop across the
control valve for the lowest flow rate to the
value for the highest flow rate is greater
than 5, an equal percentage control valve is
recommended.
Control Valve Design Procedure
Evaluate C
v
at the maximum and minimum flow
rate using the flow equation for a valve (Eq 2.3.3).
Determine which valves can effectively provide
the max and min flow rate remembering that, in
general, the valve position should be greater than
about 15% open for the minimum flow rate and
less than 85% open for the maximum flow rate.
Choose the smallest valve that meets the above
criterion for the minimum capital investment or
choose the largest valve to allow for future
throughput expansion.
Additional Information Required
to Size a Control Valve
C
V
versus % open for different valve sizes.
Available pressure drop across the valve
versus flow rate for each valve. Note that
the effect of flow on the upstream and
downstream pressure must be known.
Valve Sizing Example
Size a control valve for max 150 GPM of
water and min of 50 GPM.
Determine C
V
at Max and Min F
V
Use the valve flow equation (Equation 2.3.3) to
calculate C
v
For P, use pressure drop versus flow rate
(e.g., Table on page 82)
max min
( )
/
150 50
28.9; 9.1
27 /1 30/1
m
v
v v
F
C x
K P
C C

Valve Position for Max and Min
Flows for Different Sized Valves
Max flow Min flow
1-inch valve not large enough 75%
1.5-inch valve not large enough 68%
2-inch valve 67% 45%
3-inch valve 55% 30%
4-inch valve 47% 22%
Analysis of Results
2-inch valve appears to be best overall
choice: least expensive capital and it can
provide up to a 50% increase in throughput.
3-inch and 4-inch valve will work, but not
recommended because they will cost more
to purchase. The 2-inch valve will provide
more than enough extra capacity (i.e.,
something else will limit capacity for it)
Valve Deadband
It is the maximum change in instrument air
pressure to a valve that does not cause a
change in the flow rate through the valve.
Deadband determines the degree of
precision that a control valve or flow
controller can provide.
Deadband is primarily affected by the
friction between the valve stem and the
packing.
For Large Diameter Lines (>6),
Use a Butterfly Valve
Valve Actuator Selection
Choose an air-to-open for applications for
which it is desired to have the valve fail
closed.
Choose an air-to-close for applications for
which it is desired to have the valve fail
open.
Cross-section of a Globe Valve
Optional Equipment
Valve positioner- a controller that adjusts
the instrument air in order to maintain the
stem position at the specified position.
Greatly reduces the deadband of the valve.
Positioners are almost always used on
valves serviced by a DCS.
Booster relay- provides high capacity air
flow to the actuator of a valve. Can
significantly increase the speed of large
valves.
Photo of a Valve Positioner
Adjustable Speed Pumps
Used extensively in the bio-processing
industries (better to maintain sterile
conditions and relatively low flow rates).
Fast and precise.
Do require an instrument air system (i.e., 4-
20 mA signal goes directly to pump).
Much higher capital costs than control
valves for large flow rate applications.
Control Relevant Aspects of
Actuator Systems
The key factors are the deadband of the
actuator and the dynamic response as
indicated by the time constant of the valve.
Control valve by itself- deadband 10-25%
and a time constant of 3-15 seconds.
Control valve with a valve positioner or in a
flow control loop- deadband 0.1-0.5% and a
time constant of 0.5-2 seconds.