Chapter 13

Solutions
Overview
Solution Process
energy changes, solution formation, chemical
reactions
Concentration
mole fraction, molarity, molality, mass
percent, ppm
Saturated Solutions & Solubility
Factors Affecting Interactions
solute-solvent, pressure, temperature

Colligative Properties
vapor pressure lowering, boiling point
elevation, freezing point depression, osmosis
Colloids
Solutions
Solution
mixture of two or more substances
components are the solute and the solvent
Solvent
component of the mixture present in greater
quantity
often retains its physical characteristics
Solute
component of the mixture present in smaller
quantity
Solution Process
Intermolecular Forces
must be overcome in both the solvent & solute
before the mixture can be formed
forces between the solute & solvent must be
similar in nature and strength
hydration
interaction between water (the solvent) &
solute is termed hydration
solvation
interaction between any solvent & the solute
Energy Relationships
DH
solution
= DH
1
+ DH
2
+ DH
3
DH
1
= energy required to separate solute
particles
DH
2
= energy required to separate solvent
particles
DH
3
= energy produced by interaction of
solute/solvent
DH
solution
is exothermic only if
DH
3
is larger than DH
1
+ DH
2

Solubility
General Rule -- like dissolves like
polar substances will dissolve other polar
substances
non-polar substances will dissolve other non-
polar substances
polar substances will not dissolve non-polar
substances
Polar/Polar solutions
driven by energy relationships -- DH
3
is larger
than DH
1
+ DH
2

Contd
Polar/Polar solutions
driven by energy relationships -- DH
3
is larger
than DH
1
+ DH
2


Non-polar/Non-polar solutions
driven by disorder -- DH
3
is about the same as
DH
1
+ DH
2


Contd
True Solution
solute particles remain unchanged
NaCl
(s)
+ H
2
O
(l)
Na
+
(aq)
+ Cl
-
(aq)

no chemical reaction occurs
Ni
(s)
+ 2HCl
(aq)
NiCl
2(aq)
+ H
2(g)

Concentration
Expresses a ratio between solute and
solvent/solution
Mass %
percent mass (%) = g solute x 100
total g solution
ppm -- parts per million
ppm = mass of solute x 10
6

tot. mass soln
Mole Fraction
Mole Fraction (X) = moles solute
total moles
Molarity
Molarity (M) = moles solute
1L solution
Molality
Molality (m) = moles solute
1 kg solvent
Saturated Solutions & Solubility
Process
solute + solvent solution
solution formation
crystallization
Solubility
quantity of solute necessary to produce a saturated
solution
generally in grams of solute per 100 grams or mL of
water

Saturated Solution
solution is in equilibrium with undissolved solute
solution contains the maximum amount of solute possible
Unsaturated Solution
solution contains less than the maximum amount of
solute
there is no undissolved solute present
Supersaturated Solution
solution contains more than the maximum amount of
solute
there is no undissolved solute present
solution is unstable
Factors Affecting Solubility
Solute-Solvent Interactions
types of solute/solvent -- polar or non-polar
like dissolves like
pairs of liquids which are soluble in all
proportions are miscible
pairs which are not soluble are immiscible
Pressure
solubility of gases increase with
increasing pressure
increasing mass
Henrys Law
C
g
= kP
g
C
g
is solubility of the gas, P
g
is partial
pressure of gas, k is a constant
Temperature
generally, solubility of solids increases with
increasing temperature
solubility of gases decreases with increasing
temperature
Colligative Properties
Properties which depend on the quantity of
solute:
Vapor Pressure Lowering
addition of a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure
of the solvent
extent of lowering depends on concentration of solute,
described by Raoults Law
Raoults Law
P
solvent
= X
solvent
P
solvent

Contd
Boiling Point Elevation
DT
b
= K
b
m
solute
K
b
is a constant, m is molality
Freezing Point Depression
DT
f
= K
f
m
solute
Osmosis
p = (n/V) RT = MRT
M is molarity
R is the gas constant (0.0821 L atm/mol K)

Colloids
-dispersed particles which are larger than
molecular in size
-size from 10 to 2000
-may be a clump of particles or one large
particle
hemoglobin has a MM = 64,500 amu and 65 x 55 x 50
-appear cloudy or opaque & scatter light --
Tyndall effect