Chemistry 1411

1
Fundamentals
Part A
Matter and energy
Chemical Principles:
The Quest for Insight
Sixth Edition
Peter Atkins and Loretta Jones
2
Story-Board Fundamentals Part A: Matter and energy
A number is
either exact or
measured
Measuring tools
always make one
guess
Notation is
either scientific
or ordinary
Significant
digits
Rounding
numbers
Adding
rule
Multiplication
rule
International
System of
measurements
Dimensional
analysis
Our first
formula is
density
3
Wiki for Fundamentals Part A: Matter and energy
Observations, hypothesis
Law verses a theory
SI units, symbols and there value
Exact and Counting numbers
Recording numbers with measuring tools
Notation is either ordinary or scientific
Which digits are significant
Rules
Round
Adding
Multiplying
Dimensional analysis
Density
Chemistry is extraordinary
Chemistry is the science of
matter and the changes it can
undergo.
It embraces everything material around us-
the stones we stand on, our food and
silicon to make computer chips and more!
4
Dating 1250 to 850 BC
Early examples of chemistry at work.
5
Copper (Cu) is easily
extracted from its ores.

The Bronze Age followed
the discovery that adding
tin (Sn) to copper made
the metal harder and
stronger.
At one level, chemistry is about matter
and its transformations.

We can actually see the changes, a leaf
changes color in the fall, or magnesium
burns brightly in air.
6
Chemistry at Three Levels
This level is the (1)
macroscopic level, the level
dealing with the properties of
large, visible objects .
At a deeper (2) microscopic level,
chemistry deals with the
rearrangements of atoms.

The third level is the (3) symbolic
level, using terms, chemical symbols
and mathematical equations.
A chemist thinks at the microscopic
level, conducts experiments at the
macroscopic level, and represents
both symbolically.
7
Chemistry at Three Levels
8
Scientists pursue ideas in an ill-defined but effective
way called the scientific method.

There are no strict rules or procedures, and answers
are not always available.

Many properties of matter are not described by
grand laws; superconductivity, a major puzzle,
might be resolved in the future by finding the
appropriate law.
How Science Is Done
9
How Science Is Done
Scientists are either meticulous, or highly creative. The
best scientists are a bit of both.

Scientific methods vary, yet our goal is to collect data
from our observations and measurements .

Patterns in our data, can be stated as a scientific law, a
succinct summary of a wide range of observations.
law
theory
What happens
Why it happens
insight
10
How science progresses
insight data law or theory
Collect date (experiments and measurements)
1807
Daltons atomic
Hypothesis-that
matter consists
of atoms
Hypothesis
interpretation
explaining results
of many
experiments
Theory
Hypo-
thesis
Math
Axioms: propositions
(ground rules) that are not
proved but considered self-
evident are the foundation
for advanced math.
Physical science
calculus
addition
Axioms
Our universe unfolds as
we collect data. We build
laws and theory to
explain our observations
Science relies on math. What is the difference?
11
Atomic Theory & Models
12
,,Atoms are building blocks of matter
Negative electrons are embedded in a
sea of positive charge
Positive charge is located within a central
nucleus
Electrons are in circular orbits with quantized
energy levels
Electrons occupy regions of space whose
shape is described by complex
mathematical equations
Quantum
mechanics
model
13
Branches of Chemistry
Organic: carbon compounds
Inorganic: everything but carbon compounds
Physical: theory and principles
Newer
Biochemistry
Analytical: techniques, devices
Computational
Medical
Chemical Engineering: production
Matter is any object with mass and volume, such as a
planet or the substances that makes up the planet or
everything on the planet;

Only a little over 100 different type of atoms are on our
planet.

Objects not included are shadows, affection, justice.
14
Matter and Energy
In Chemistry Substance is a single, pure form of matter.
15
Matter and Energy
Are they related?

All objects move, except at the hypothetical temperature
zero Kelvin.

A common energy formula:
2
2
shows the
relationship between energy, mass and speed.

We see in many energy equations this mass and motion
relationship.

Matter has mass and volume.

3-states of matter
a) Solids
b) Liquids
c) Gases

Whats the difference between these
three states?
Speed
Atoms begin to oscillate
faster as temperature is
increased.
16
Matter and Energy
17
Properties and Changes
Properties identify
Physical: identifies that material
1. Mass
2. Temp
3. Electrical
4. Volume

Chemical: identifies that chemical process (ability to
change into another chemical)
1. Reduction oxidation potential
2. Solubility
3. Thermodynamics, is it spontaneous
Any characteristic that describes or identify matter is called property
18
Properties and Changes
Changes are an alteration or process

Physical
Solid to a liquid
Liquid to a gas
Solid to a gas

Chemical (transformation process)
Magnesium metal + oxygen gas into the magnesium oxide
Carbohydrates turn into energy + CO
2
+ H
2
O
Extensive properties are
physical properties that
depend on the quantity of
matter (n atoms): Volume &
Mass
19
Intensive and Extensive Properties
Cutting coins in half will give
you half the number of atoms
Same temperature
different volumes.
20
Intensive and Extensive Properties
Intensive properties are
independent of the quantity
of matter: Density &
Temperature
Experimentation and Measurement:
Chemistry is an experimental science
To measure same
quantities such as mass
length, time and
temperature
English System- USA
Metric System -95% of
industrialized word
SI System in 1960 was
based on metric system

Physical
Quantity
SI name of
unit
Meter
system
name
English system
name
mass kilogram
kg
gram
g
pound, ounce
length meter
m
meter
m
mile, feet, inch,
yard..
time second
s
second
s
second
s

Tempera-
ture
Kelvin
K
t
o
Celsius

Fahrenheit
F
21
Chapter 1/22 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Experimentation and Measurement: Chemistry
is an experimental science
Systme Internationale dUnits
All other units are derived from these fundamental units.
Very large and very small numbers are indicated
by scientific notation, using exponential format
23
SI System, youll find them in the back binder

Mega
kilo
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico

For Example
M = 10
6

k = 10
3
d = 10
-1
c = 10
-2
m = 10
-3
= 10
-6
n = 10
-9
p = 10
-12
Common SI prefixes
1 Megawatt (wind turbine)
kilometer (distance)

milliliter, syringes
micrometer, cell diameter
nanometer, Chemical bond
picometer, atom diameter
(m = .001)L
mL = .001L
or
1000 mL = L
Conversion unit
milli- is the SI name for the symbol m, and a prefix, the
mathematical representation of milli- is 10
-3
. This is
typically written as m = 10
-3
.
We can combine the SI symbol and number
We can treat this like an algebraic expression
Multiplying the L through the parenthesis
24
Using the SI system for conversions
Write a conversion unit for pico gram

Write a conversion unit for mega watt

Write a conversion unit for seconds in a minute
(p = 10
-12
)
(M = 10
6
)
60 sec = 1 min
g
w
pg = 10
-12
g
Mw = 10
6
w
25
Measurements: Conversions
Conversion Unit: 1000 mL = L
Conversion factors are conversion units written as a
numerator and denominator.
1000
= 1
1 =
1000

Transforming a Conversion Units into a Conversion factor.
26
60 sec = 1 min
pg = 10
-12
g
Mw = 10
6
w
10
12
g

or
10
12
g

Mw
10
6
w

or
10
6
w
Mw

60 sec
1

or
1
60 sec

Rewrite the following as conversion factors, two different
ways.
27
10
-12
gpg
-1
or
28
What are Important Digits
Science is collecting data and reporting our results.

We have to justify our data by reporting the correct
number of digits from our measurements.

We only write the correct number of digits in our reports,
these are called significant figures.

The number of significant figures in our calculations
cannot exceed our data measurements.

You can't generate data from a calculator!
Measurements: Measured
Measured number come from measuring tools.

The problem is measuring tools are not exact ; accuracy is
determined by the manufacture.
1
100

1
1000

30
Recording Measurements
When using a measuring tool
1. Write all the digits you see
2. Make one guess
3. Add units
4.8
4.82
4.82 cm
2 decimal numbers
31
2. Make one guess
3. Add units
25
25.7
25.7
1 decimal number
32
2. Make one guess
3. Add units
8.0
8.00
8.00 cm
This number has 3 digits
2 decimal numbers
33
Reading liquid: get eye level with the Bottom of the meniscus
Adhesion
Cohesion
34
Reading liquid: get eye level with the Bottom of the meniscus
What would the volume reading be?

What do you see:
What is your guess:
Final:
16
16.4
16.4 mL
50
40
30
20
10
0
35
Numbers in our data are written in either
1. Ordinary notation
2. Scientific notation

A big advantage of scientific notation is its easier to
write both big and small numbers.
Notation
Ordinary notation

36,000,000
Scientific notation

3.6 10
7

36
How to write scientific notation for a big number.

An example using 36,000,000

Locate the first digit
Place the decimal after the first digit
Write all digits after the first digit
Use the notation 10
number of decimal hops

Notation
36,000,000 3. 3.6 3.6 10
7

7 6 5 4 3 2 1
.
37
How to write scientific notation for a small number.

An example using 0.000089

Locate the first digit
Place the decimal after the first digit
Write all digits after the first digit
Use the notation 10
number of decimal hops

Notation
0.000089 8. 8.9 8.9 10
-5

Here we use a -
to indicate a
number smaller
than 1
1 2 3 4 5
38
Write the following ordinary numbers in scientific
notation.
Notation
1.22 10
2

7.801 10
4

9.59 10
8

9.5 10
-4

1.254 10
-1

1 10
0

122
78,010
959,000,000
0.00095
0.1254
1
39
digits
There are two types of digits
1. Exact
2. Measured

Exact are either:
Counting (Im holding 5 fingers) or are,

Definitions (60 seconds = 1 minute), these have an infinite
number of digits, so 5 fingers means 5.00000 with an
number of zeros.

All other numbers are measured with a measuring tool,
hence are inaccurate.
40
Measurements: Exact
Exact Numbers
1. Counting
How many raised fingers are on the hand?
How many piglets are there?

2. Definitions
60 minutes in 1 hour
100 pennies in 1 dollar
1000 milliliters in 1 liter
5 fingers on one hand
Exact numbers have infinite () precision!

60.0000000 minutes = 1 dollar ( number of zeros)
41
Significant Figure (SF)
appendix 1C
Rules for reporting results from a calculation
1. Digits
2. Rounding
3. Addition & Subtraction
4. Multiplication & Division

We will focus on the difficult concept Zero.
9547 cm (4 SF)
4.29 g (3 SF)
12 in = 1 ft ( number of SF)

Different kinds of Zeros

Captive: 807 miles
Trailing: 600.
600

Leading: 0.00010
(3 SF) all the zeros count
(3 SF) decimals make zeros SF
(1 SF) without decimals zeros are not SF
(2 SF) leading zeros are not SF
42
Remember: zeros at the end with a decimal count
How many SF in the following
725

6001

9010

9010.

0.00680

1 ft = 12 in
3 SF

4 SF

3 SF no decimal

4 SF decimal

3 SF leading no, trailing yes

, its a definition
43
44
How many SF in the following
50.0000

0000000.01

00023.0200

0.0020200

4500000000

45000.0000

1000 mL = 1 L
6 SF

1 SF leading no

6 SF leading no, sandwich and trailing yes

5 SF

2 SF

9 SF

, its a definition
45
Significant Figure: Rounding
Rounding off in calculations, round up if the last digit is
above 5 and round down if it is below 5.

For numbers ending in 5, always round to the nearest
even number. 0 is considered as even number.
2.35 rounds to 2.4
2.65 rounds to 2.6

In a calculation with multiple steps, round off only in
the final step.
Round the following into a 3 SF number
5.640

900810

8887

0.000021

20

9

9000

89019.0
5.64

901000

8890

0.0000210

20.0

9.00

9.00 x 10
3

8.90 x 10
4

46
Round the following into a 4 SF number

335.64

80236

18,000

0.002

7

44102.02

1999.6
335.6

80240

1.800 x 10
4

.002000

7.000

4.410 x 10
4

2000.
47
255 32.7 320000
+34.0 - 0.0049 + 12.5
289.0 32.6951 320012.5
289 32.7 320000 (1 and 2)

48
Significant Figure: Addition & Subtraction
When adding or subtracting, make sure that the number
of decimal places in the result is the same as the smallest
number of decimal places in the data.

Addition or subtraction:
1. The answer cant have more digits to the
right of the decimal point than any of the original numbers.
2. The number of significant figures in the calculations cannot exceed
the data measurements.
1200 500. 100
+250 + 0.00021 - 98.5
1450 500.00021 001.5

Recorded Answers
1500 500. 2
49
More practice:
Stop at the least SF digit
The zero does not count
since there is no decimal.
Must be whole number
6600 10.0 10 10
+25.0 - 9.85 - 9.85 -4.85
6625.0 .15 00.15 5.15

Recorded Answers
6600 .2
0
50
More practice:
5
5.02 89,665 0.10 = 45.0118 = 45
5.892 6.10 = 0.96590 = 0.966
51
Significant Figure: Multiplication & Division
When multiplying or dividing, make sure that the number
of significant figures in the result is the same as the
fewest number of significant figures in the data (the
least accurate).
1.01 0.12 53.51 96 = 0.067556 = 0.068

56.55 0.920 34.2585 = 1.51863 = 1.52
52
Significant Figure: Multiplication & Division
53
Dimensional Analysis
The next section introduces a method for solving
problems called Dimension analysis.

The method uses conversion factors.

Conversion factors must be written with a numerator
and denominator.
10
6

10
12

60

54

1
=
1

1
2

2
1
=
When using a conversion factor, treat the units just
like algebraic quantity: they are multiplied or canceled in
the normal way.

The most important reason for doing this is to see how
units cancel.
55
Comment:

Students can benefit by using dimensional
analysis as a way of recognizing how to organize
data.

Following a few simple guidelines, repeatedly, will
make problem-solving less of a chore and more of
an art-form.
What are the units in the answer:
Write out given and missing information:
Starting in the numerator, writing the unit of the answer:
Cancel each unwanted unit not appearing in the answer.

wanted unit
a
= wanted unit
Procedure for a typical dimensional analysis problem.
wanted unit
wanted unit/a, a/b, b/c, c/1
wanted unit
a

Question: Find wanted unit.
Starting with our wanted unit, our answer will have the correct unit

a
b

b
c

c
1

= L
Final answer
57
Example A.I Suppose we want to convert a volume of 1.7 qt into liters.
1.7 qt
1
=
Liters, L
1.7 qt, 1 qt = 0.946 L
0.946 L
1 qt

1.60820 L
Our measured number with the least SF is 1.7 or 2SF, so
1.6 L
0.946 L
1 qt

= cm
58
Self-Test A1.A Express the height of a person 6.0 feet tall in
centimeters.
Final
answer
cm
6.0 ft, 12 in = 1 ft,
2.54 cm = 1 in
Our measured number with the least SF is 6.0 or 2SF, so
180 cm 182.880 cm
250. g
ounces or oz
1 kg = 2.2 lbs
1000 g = 1 kg
16 oz = 1 lb
= oz
16 oz
1 lb

2.2 lb
1kg

1kg
1000g

Our measured number with the least SF is 250. or 3SF
59
Self-Test A.1B Express the mass in ounces of a 250. g package of
breakfast cereal.
8.80000 oz
Final
answer
8.80 oz
250.g
1
=
Self-test A.2A Express a density of 6.5 gmm
-3
in micrograms per
nanometer cubed (gnm
-3
).
6.5 gmm
-3

gnm
-3

1 g = 10
-6
g
1 mm = 10
-3
m
1 nm = 10
-9
m
=
g
nm
3

1 g
10
6
g

6.5 g
mm
3

1 mm
10
3

m

10
9
m
1 nm
=
Our measured number with the least SF is 6.5 or 2SF
Match the units, then cube.
10
9
m
1 nm
3
=
1 mm
10
3

m
3

6.5 10
12

g
nm
3

The entire calculation is always preformed in your calculator as one
continuous string of operations; it is incorrect, and you will have a
greater chance of producing errors by writing separate numerators
and denominators proceeded by a calculation.
61
Self-test A.2B Express an acceleration of 9.81 ms
-2
in kilometers per
hour squared (kmhr
-2
).
Write out given and missing information: 9.81 ms
-2

kmhr
-2

1 km = 1000 m
1 hr = 3600 s
=
km
hr
2

1 km
1000 m

9.81 m
s
2

3600 s
1 hr

Our measured number with the least SF is 9.81 or 3SF
Match the units, then cube.
3600 s
1 hr
2
=
1.27 10
5

km
hr
2

Precise & Accurate Precise
Accurate
62
Neither precise
nor accurate
Mass and Its Measurement
Mass: Amount of matter in an
object

Weight: Measures the force with
which gravity pulls on an object
Weighting means that we are
measuring mass
SI Unit: kg, g, mg, microgram (g)

Standard Unit: cylindrical bar of
Platinum-iridium alloy
Length and Its Measurement
Meter (standard unit)
1 m =100 cm =1000 mm =1 x10
6
m = 1 x 10
9
nm =1 x10
-3
km

1790: One ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the North pole along a
meridian running through Paris, France

1889: Distance between two thin lines on a bar of platinum-iridium alloy stored near
Paris, France

1983: The distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second (c = 3.0 x
10
8
m/s)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 65
Insert Figure 1.5 p13
(As big as possible, prefer to start at top)

Degree(unit) Size
and zero-point
Temperature and Its Measurement
(
o
F - 32
o
F)
5
o
C
9
o
F
o
C =
o
C + 32
o
F
9
o
F
5
o
C
o
F =
K =
o
C + 273.15
Degree size and
zero-point
adjustment
zero-point
adjustment
5
o
C = 5
o
C X 1.8
o
F/
o
C + 32
o
F = 41
o
F
5
o
C = 5
o
C + 273.15 = 278 K
Derived Units: Volume and Its
Measurement
2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 68
Volume, the amount of space occupied by an object, is
measured in SI units by the cubic meter (m
3
)
1 m
3
= 1000 L
69
Density: intensive independent of the number of atoms
Density: is direct relationship between
mass and volume (both extensive)

=
3
,

Interestingly, multiplying or dividing two extensive
(dependent on the number of atoms) properties must give
you an intensive (independent of the number of atoms)
property.
Derived Units: Density and Its
Measurement
Density is the amount of matter in a certain amount of space
solids- cm
3
d --- g/ cm
3

liquids- mL d -----g/mL
gases- L
Typical volume units
Determining Density for Regular
Objects
V
cube
= a x a x a = a
3
V = a x b x c

parallelepiped
V
cylinder
= r
2
h

V
sphere
= 4 r
3
/3 = 4/3 x r
3

V s
phere
= 1/6 x d
3

Determining Density for Irregular
Objects
40.0 mL
1 figure after decimal
Compare our answer to either gold or fools gold.
112 g, 35.8 mL, 41.6 mL
g
mL

=
g
mL

112 g
1

1
41.6 35.8 mL

74
You discovered a piece of matter that looks like gold, d = 19.28 g/cm
3
,
but it may be fool's gold, d = 5.02 g/cm
3
. The sample mass is 112
grams. When placed in a graduated cylinder containing 35.8 mL of
water, the water level rises to 41.6 mL. Calculate the density of the
sample and identify it.
= 19
g
mL
which is gold
1
5.8 mL

41.6 - 35.8 = 5.8 a 2SF so our final answer is 19
F=ma
=

if m then F
75
Force
Energy is work

1 heart beat = 1 J

There are three contributions to energy: kinetic energy,
potential energy and electromagnetic energy.
1 = 1
2

2

76
Energy
Kinetic is the energy that a body possesses due to
motion.

Potential is the energy that a body possesses due to its
position in a field of force.

Electromagnetic is the energy due to attractions and
repulsions between electric charges.

=
1
2
2
4
0

m = mass
= velocity
g = gravitational force
h = height
q = charge
77
Energy
=
1
2
2

To raise your book
from floor to
tabletop requires
approximately 14 J.
of energy. The same
energy released if
the book fell to the
floor.
Fast moving atoms
exert a force, by
pushing against the
atmosphere.
78
Energy
Kinetic is the energy of a moving body
Energy
=
The potential energy of a mass
in a gravitational field is
proportional to its height h. The
starting position on the floor
correspond to zero potential
energy.
79
Potential is static, energy that a non-moving body
possesses due to its position in a field of force.
Energy
=
Someone of mass 65 kg walks up a
flight of stairs between two floors of
a building that are separated by 3.0
m. What is the change in potential
energy of the person?
=65kg 9.81 ms
-2
3.0m = 1.9 kJ
80
Potential is static, energy that a non-moving body
possesses due to its position in a field of force.
2
4
0

The energy of electric charges
found atomic nuclei and
electrons are charged.

Coulomb potential energy of
two opposite charges (one
red the other green)

At the bottom, potential
energy decreases.
81
Energy
Electromagnetic is the attractive and
repulsive energy between electric charges
Electromagnetic fields (photons)
carry through space as radio
waves, light waves and x-rays.

Moving charged particles
generate an oscillating electric
field and an oscillating magnetic
field.
82
Electromagnetic
The crucial distinction is that electric fields affect charged
particles whether they are moving or still, and magnetic
fields affect only moving charged particles.
Total Energy = KE + PE

A ball thrown up has high KE and
zero PE. At the top of its flight, it has
zero KE and high PE. On the return,
its KE rises and its PE approaches
zero again.

On impact its energy is dissipated as
thermal motion, the chaotic,
random motion of atoms and
molecules.
83
E
T
= E
K
+ E
P

Totaling KE and PE of Earth and the ball are the same; Law of
conservation of energy, is energy can be neither created nor
destroyed.

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