Signal Conditioning for

Electronic Instrumentation


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MCT 3332 : Instrumentation and Measurements

Dr. Hazlina Md Yusof
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
International Islamic University Malaysia
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Content:
Introduction
Bridge Circuits
Op-Amp circuits for Inverting
Non-inverting amplifier
High impedance buffer
Differential amplifier
Instrumentation amplifier
Active filters
Analog Signal Conditioning

1. Introduction

Signal conditioning is used to process an output
signal from a sensor to make it suitable for the next
stage of operation.
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Analog Signal Conditioning

Signal conditioning is applied when signal:-
is too small and needs to be amplified
contains interference which need to be attenuated
is non linear and needs to be linearized
Need to be differentiated/integrated
in analogue form and digital form is needed
in the form of resistance change needs to be converted into
current change
in the form of voltage change needs to be converted into
current change
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Analog Signal Conditioning

Advantages of signal conditioning
to prepare the signal to be in a suitable form for interfacing with
other elements in the process-control loop.
In analog conversions, the conditioned output signal is still in
an analog representation of the variable.
Even in applications involving digital processing, some type of
analog conditioning is usually required before analog-to-
digital conversion is made.
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Analog Signal Conditioning

Principles of analog signal conditioning

sensor measures a variable/measurand by converting
the information about that variable into a dependent
signal of either electrical or mechanical in nature.

analog signal conditioning provides the necessary
operations to transform the sensor output into a form
necessary to interface with other elements.

the effect of the signal conditioning is defined by a
transfer function

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Measurement Sub-system
A/D board
Analog Signal Conditioning

Analog Signal Conditioning

Signal Conditioning is categorized into several types:

(a) Linearization
(b) Conversion
(c) Filtering and Impedance Matching
(d) Concept of Loading
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Analog Signal Conditioning

(a) Linearization


a sensor output varies nonlinearly
with a process variable.
a linearization circuit will condition
the sensor output to be linear with
the process variable.
generally, these types of circuits are
difficult to design and operate only
within narrow limits.
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Analog Signal Conditioning

Modern approach :
i. provide the nonlinear signal as input to a computer and
perform the linearization using software.
ii. virtually any nonlinearity can be handled in this manner
and, with the speed of modern computers, can be done in
real time.
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Analog Signal Conditioning

(b) Conversion
Circuits can be used to convert the resistance change to a :
(i) voltage signal
(ii) current signal (i.e. bridge)
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Analog Signal Conditioning

(c) Filtering and Impedance Matching

(i) Filtering
high-pass, low-pass, or notch filters are used to attenuate
unwanted signals from the process control loop.
filtering can be accomplished by,
passive filters; resistors, capacitors, and inductors
active filters, using amplifier and feedback.

(ii) Impedance matching
active and passive circuit networks are employed to provide
impedance matching to maximum power transfer from source to
load


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Analog Signal Conditioning
(d) Concept of Loading
the loading of one circuit by
another is important.
loading occurs when something is
connected to an open circuit
(across the output), and the output
voltage of the element drops to
some value, Vy < Vx.
Different loads result in different
drops.


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R
L
is connected across the output of
the element. When a current flow,
and voltage will be dropped across
The loaded output voltage will be



The voltage that appears across the
load, instead of Vx is reduced by the
voltage dropped across the internal
resistance.
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
x L
x
x y
R R
R
1 V V
Analog Signal Conditioning
Problem 1
An amplifier outputs a voltage that is ten times the
voltage on its input terminals. It has an input
resistance of 10kO . A sensor outputs a voltage
proportional to temperature with a transfer function
of 20mV/C. the sensor has an output resistance of
5.0k O . If the temperature is 50 C, find the
amplifier output.

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Analog Signal Conditioning

3. Passive circuits

bridge and divider circuits are two passive
techniques that is used for signal conditioning
bridge circuits are used for measuring changes in
impedance.
a passive circuit consists of a resistor and capacitor
can be used to eliminate high- and low-frequency
noise without changing the desired signal
information.
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Analog Signal Conditioning

(a) Divider Circuits

The voltage of such a divider is
given by the well-known
relationship

(2.2)

where
V
S
, = supply voltage

R
1
, R
2
= divider resistors
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2 1
2
R R
V R
V
S
D
+
=

Analog Signal Conditioning
Problem 2
The divider of figure has R
1
=10.0kO and
V
s
=5V. Suppose R
2
is a sensor whose
resistance varies from 4.00 to 12.0k O
as some dynamic variable varies over a
range. Then find
(a) The maximum and minimum of V
D
(b) The range of output impedance
(c) The range of power dissipated by R
2

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Analog Signal Conditioning

Issues to be considered for converting resistance to
voltage :

1. the variation of V
D
with either R
1
or R
2
is nonlinear,
even if the resistance varies linearly with the
measured variable.
2. the effective output impedance of the divider is the
parallel combination of R
2
and R
1
.
3. in a divider circuit, current flows through both
resistors; power will be dissipated by both, including
the sensor.


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Analog Signal Conditioning

(b) Bridge Circuits

Bridge Circuit is a null method, operates on the principle
of comparison. That is a known (standard) value is
adjusted until it is equal to the unknown value.

used to convert impedance variations into voltage
variations.
advantages :
it can be designed so the voltage produced varies around
zero.
amplification can be used to increase the voltage level for
increased sensitivity to variation of impedance.
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Analog Signal Conditioning
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Bridge Circuit
DC Bridge
(Resistance)
AC Bridge
Inductance Capacitance Frequency
Schering Bridge Wien Bridge
Maxwell Bridge
Hay Bridge
Owen Bridge
Etc.
Wheatstone Bridge
Kelvin Bridge
Megaohm Bridge
Bridge Circuit
Bridge Circuit is a null method, operates on the principle of
comparison. That is a known (standard) value is adjusted until it is
equal to the unknown value.
Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to
measure an unknown electrical resistance by balancing
two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the
unknown component.
Its operation is similar to the original potentiometer.
It was invented by Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833 and
improved and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in
1843.
One of the Wheatstone bridge's initial uses was for the
purpose of soils analysis and comparison
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Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge

Wheatstone Bridge
simplest and common bridge circuit .
used in signal-conditioning applications
where a sensor changes resistance with
process variable changes.
D is a high-input impedance differential
amplifier voltage detector used to
compare the potentials of the points a
and b of the network.

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Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge

Instrument for making
comparison in measurements
Operates on null-indication
principle
Indication is independent of the
calibration of the indicating device
Able to achieve higher degree of
accuracy
Used in control circuits
One arm contains a resistive
element that is sensitive to the
physical parameter being
controlled
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Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge

Accurate and reliable

Heavily used in industry



Accuracy of 0.1% compared to ordinary ohmmeter for resistance
measurement

Bridge used to determine an unknown resistor.
Vary one of the remaining resistors until the current through the null
detector (usually a galvanometer other sensitive current meters ) is
zero.
This indicates that the bridge is in balanced condition.

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G C
D
A
B
R
1

R3
R
2

R
4

I
4

I
1

I
3

I
2

Ratio arms
Standard arm
Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge
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Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone Bridge
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Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge
Measurement Errors


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1. Limiting error of the known resistors

Using 1st order approximation:

2. Insufficient sensitivity of Detector

3. Changes in resistance of the bridge
arms due to the heating effect (I2R) or
temperatures

4. Thermal emf or contact potential in
the bridge circuit

5. Error due to the lead connection

3, 4 and 5 play the important role in the
measurement of low value resistance

Example
In the Wheatstone bridge circuit, R3 is a decade
resistance with a specified in accuracy 0.2% and R1 and
R2 = 500 0.1%. If the value of R3 at the null position is
520.4 , determine the possible minimum and maximum
value of RX

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Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge
Measurement Errors

Example
A Wheatstone bridge has a ratio arm of 1/100 (R2/R1). At
first balance, R3 is adjusted to 1000.3 . The value of Rx
is then changed by the temperature change, the new value
of R3 to achieve the balance condition again is 1002.1 .
Find the change of Rx due to the temperature change.

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Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge
Measurement Errors

Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge
Sensitivity of the Wheatstone Bridge
At an unbalanced condition, current that passes through the
galvanometer will cause a deflection of the pointer.

The amount of deflection is a function of the sensitivity of the
galvanometer.
Deflection, D per unit current.

S = millimeters or degrees or radians
A A A

The total deflection D is then becomes,
D = S x I (I in A)
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Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge
Sensitivity of the Wheatstone Bridge
A galvanometer is use to detect an unbalance condition in Wheatstone bridge. Its
sensitivity is governed by: Current sensitivity (currents per unit defection) and internal
resistance.
consider a bridge circuit under a small unbalance condition, and apply circuit analysis
to solve the current through galvanometer
To calculate the current that passes the galvanometer
Use Thevenins Theorem to find the Thevenin equivalent voltage seen by the
galvanometer.

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Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge

Galvanometer Detector
Usage of a galvanometer as a
null detector in the bridge
circuit introduces difference in
calculation because :
the detector resistance may be
low but it is still there
the bridge offset as current offset
must be determined first.
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Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge
Example
Figure below show the schematic diagram of a Wheatstone bridge with
values of the bridge elements. The battery voltage is 5 V and its internal
resistance negligible. The galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 10
mm/A and an internal resistance of 100 . Calculate the deflection of
the galvanometer caused by the 5- unbalance in arm BC

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Example
The galvanometer in the previous example is replaced by one
with an internal resistance of 500 and a current sensitivity of
1mm/A. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm can be observed
on the galvanometer scale, determine if this new galvanometer is
capable of detecting the 5- unbalance in arm BC

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Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge
Example 3
Calculate the current, I
G

through the galvanometer in the
circuit. Given
E=6V, R
1
=1kO,
R
2
=1.6kO,R
3
=3.5kO,
R
4
=7.5k O, R
G
=200O,
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C
a
A
B
D
E
R
1

R
3

R
2

R
4

b
Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge
Bridge Resolution

is used to determine the bridge offset.
viewed as an overall accuracy of the instrument.
R represents the uncertainty in the resistor used in the given
bridge and error signal detector (i.e. across terminal a and b).
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Analog Signal Conditioning
Wheatstone bridge
Slightly Unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge




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Example
Circuit in Figure (a) below consists of a resistor Rv which is sensitive to
the temperature change. The plot of R vs Temp. is also shown in Figure
(b). Find (a) the temperature at which the bridge is balance and (b) The
output signal at Temperature of 60C.

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Analog Signal Conditioning
Kelvin Bridge
40
RY

3

Low resistance Bridge: R
x
< 1

Analog Signal Conditioning
Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to 0.00001
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Analog Signal Conditioning
Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to 0.00001
Kelvin Bridge
Example 4
If in the figure given, the ratio of R
a
to R
b
is 1000, R
1
=5
and R
1
=0.5R
2
,what is the value of R
x
?
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Analog Signal Conditioning
Lead Compensation

used where changes in lead resistance
are introduced equally to two (both)
arms of the bridge circuit without
causing effective changes in bridge
offset.
assume R
4
is the sensor
wire 3 is the power lead has no
influence on bridge balance condition
changes in wire 2 will give some
changes to R
4
.
wire 1 is exposed to the same
environment (i.e. lead) and changed by
the same amount
R
3
and R
4
are changed identically, no
change in the bridge; null occurs.
this type of compensation is used with
long leads to the active element of the
bridge.

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Analog Signal Conditioning
Current Balanced Bridge
a technique that provides an electronic
nulling of the bridge (i.e. zeroing network)
and uses only fixed resistors by using
current
this method is used to overcome the
disadvantage of a Wheatstone Bridge
where a null by variation of resistors is
needed.
the Wheatstone bridge is modified by
splitting one arm resistor into two, R
4
and
R
5
.
current, I is fed into the bridge through
junction R
4
&R
5
.
R
4
R
5
(1)
if a high impedance null detector (high
Rm) is used, Eq. 1 will be
(R
2
+R
4
)R
5
(2)
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Analog Signal Conditioning
Current Balanced Bridge
5
5 4 2
5 4
b
IR
R R R
) R V(R
V +
+ +
+
=
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V
b
is the sum of the divided supply voltage + the voltage dropped across R
5

from the current, I


(3)

the voltage at point a is



the bridge offset voltage is V = V
a
- V
b


(4)

3 1
3
a
R R
VR
V
+
=
5
5 4 2
5 4
3 1
3
IR
R R R
) R V(R
R R
VR
V
+ +
+

+
=
Analog Signal Conditioning
Current Balanced Bridge
Problem 4

A current balance bridge as
shown has resistors R
1
=R
2
=10k
O R
4
= 950 O R
3
=1.0kO R
5
=50 O
and a high impedance null
detector. Find the current
required to null the bridge if R
3

changes by 1 O. The supply
voltage is 10V.
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Analog Signal Conditioning
Bridge Controlled Circuits
If the ratio of R
2
to R
v
equals the ratio of
R
1
and R
3
then the error signal is zero

If the physical parameter changes, R
v
will
change.
the bridge becomes unbalanced

in most control applications, the measured
and control parameter is corrected, restoring
R
v
to the value that creates a null condition
at the output of the bridge.

the R
v
value can be calculated using the
balanced bridge equation.

due to small value of R
v
, the error signal is
quite low needs to be amplified before
being used for control purposes
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