Measurement of velocity

Measurement of Linear Velocity

The most commonly used transducer for measurement of linear
velocity is the electro-magnetic transducer.
This transducer utilizes the voltage produced in a coil on account
of change in flux linkages resulting from change in reluctance.

If the average value of reluctance R is considerably greater than the

variations in R, the quantity Ni/R2 is approximately constant.
Therefore the rate of change of flux is directly proportional to the rate
of change of reluctance.
The change in flux produces an output voltages and hence the output
voltage is directly proportional to the rate of change of reluctance.

The reluctance varies directly as the length of air gap and therefore the
output voltage is directly proportional to rate of change of air gap and
hence to the velocity.
(This condition is only satisfied when the length of air gap is small).

Thus this type of transducer is velocity sensitive.

The electro-magnetic transducers are classified into two

categories:

(1)Moving magnet type, and

(ii) Moving coil type.

Moving Magnet type

The constant mmf (polarizing field) Ni, can be provided by a
solenoid of N turns and carrying a constant current i.
But the electromagnetic transducers use a permanent magnet
which provides a constant polarizing field.
Fig. 29.40 shows a moving magnet type of transducer.
The sensing element is a rod that is rigidly coupled to the device
whose velocity is being measured.
This rod is a permanent magnet.
There is a coil surrounding the permanent magnet.
The motion of the magnet induces a voltage in the coil and the
amplitude of the voltage is directly proportional to the velocity.

For a coil placed in a magnetic field, the voltage induced in the coil is
directly proportional to the velocity.
The polarity of the output voltage determines the direction of motion.
The sensitivity of this transducer is stated in terms of mV/mm - s.
Advantages
(i) The maintenance requirements of these transducers are
negligible, because there are no mechanical surfaces or contacts.
(ii) The output voltage is linearly proportional to velocity.
(iii) These transducers can be used as event markers which are
robust and inexpensive to manufacture.

Disadvantages
(i) The performance of these transducers is adversely affected by
stray magnetic fields.
These fields cause noise.
(ii) The frequency response is usually limited and is stated.
(iii) These transducers are not very useful for measurement of
vibrations because their calibration deteriorates as contact with steel
tools etc. leads to progressive demagnetization.

There are two other forms of electromagnetic transducers which are

described below:
Moving Coil type Velocity Transducer

The moving coil type velocity transducer shown in Fig 29.41 operates
essentially through the action of a coil moving in a magnetic field.
A voltage is generated in the coil which is proportional to the velocity
of the coil.

(Note that in this transducers the functions of permanent magnet and

the coil are reversed from their functions as used in transducer of Fig.
29.47).
The advantages of this transducer are:
(i) This is a more satisfactory arrangement as the system now forms a
closed magnetic circuit with a constant air gap.
(ii) The whole device is contained in an antimagnetic case which
reduces the effects of stray magnetic fields.

Another type of velocity transducers uses a pivoted arm on which a

coil is mounted.
There is a mass attached at the end of the arm.
The velocity to be measured is applied to the arm and therefore the
coil moves in the field of a permanent magnet.
A voltage is generated on account of motion of the coil in the magnetic field.
The output voltage is proportional to the velocity.
This type of transducer is generally used for measurement of velocities
developed in a linear, sinusoidal or random manner.
Damping is obtained electrically, thus assuring high stability under varying
temperature conditions.

Seismic type Velocity Transducer

In this type of construction a permanent magnet is supported
between two springs and fitted with low friction bearing rings as
shown in Fig. 29.42.
If this transducer is attached to an object which is vibrating at a
frequency that is greater than the low natural frequency of the
transducer, the magnet appears to be stationary in space.

The case and coil oscillate around the magnet resulting in an output
voltage which is proportional to the amplitude of the vibration.
The frequency of the output is equal to the frequency of the

vibration.
Both moving coil and seismic transducers have the disadvantage
that the connection, to the moving member.

Measurement of Angular Velocity

In many cases the only way to measure linear velocity is to
convert it into angular velocity.
For example a speedometer uses the wheel rotational speed as a
measure of the linear road speed.
The disadvantage with measurement of linear velocity arises
because a fixed reference must be used and if the moving object
has to travel large distances, the detection becomes impossible.
Hence angular velocity transducers are used.
The measurement of angular speed may be made with
tachometers which may be either mechanical or electrical type.

Electrical Tachometers
The electrical tachometers are preferred over mechanical
tachometers for all applications because these tachometers offer
all the advantages associated with electrical transducers.
The various types of electrical tachometers are discussed
below:

Electromagnetic Tachometer Generators

There are two types of electromagnetic tachometer generators
called tachogenerators.
These are:
(i) D.C.tachometer generators,
(ii) A.C. tachometer generators.

and

Tachometer Generators
D.C. tachometer generators consist of a small armature which is
coupled to the machine whose speed is to be measured.
This armature revolves in the field of a permanent magnet.
The emf generated is proportional to the product of flux and speed.
Since the flux of the permanent magnet is constant, the voltage
generated is proportional to speed.
The polarity of output voltage indicates the direction of rotation.
This emf is measured with the help of a moving coil voltmeter having
a uniform scale and calibrated directly in terms of speed.
Fig. 29.43 shows a d.c. tachometer generator.
A series resistance is used in the circuit for the purpose of limiting
the current from the generator in the event of a short circuit on the
output side.

Advantages
The chief advantages of this tachometer are:
(i) The direction of rotation is directly indicated by the polarity of the
output voltage.
(ii) The output voltage is typically 10 mV/rpm and can be measured
with conventional type d.c. voltmeters.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages are:
(i) Brushes on small tachometer generators often produce
maintenance problems, as their contact resistance may vary and
produce appreciable error.
Thus the commutator and the brushes require periodic
maintenance.
(ii) The input resistance of meter should be very high as compared
with output resistance of generator.
This is required to limit the armature current to small value.
If the armature current is large, the field of the permanent magnet
is distorted giving rise to non-linearity.

A.C. Tachometer Generators

In order to overcome some of the difficulties mentioned above,
a.c. tachometer generators are used.
The tachometer generator has rotating magnet which may be
either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet
The coil is wound on the stator and therefore the problems
associated with commutator (as in d.c. tachometers) are absent.
The rotation of the magnet causes an emf to be induced in the
stator coil.
The amplitude and frequency of this emf are both proportional to
the speed of rotation.
Thus either amplitude or frequency of induced voltage may be
used as a measure of rotational speed.

When amplitude of induced voltage is used as a measure of

speed, the circuit of Fig. 29.44 is used.

The output voltage of a.c. tachometer generator is rectified and

is measured with a permanent magnet moving coil instrument

Limitations
(i) The difficulty with this system is that at low speed the frequency of
output voltage is low and hence it is very difficult to smooth out the
ripples in the output voltage wave-shape and hence a.c. tachometer
generators are designed to have a large number of poles so that the
frequency of output voltage is high even at low speeds.

(ii) High speeds also present a problem.

At high speeds, the frequency increases and therefore, the

impedance of the coils of tacho-generator increases.
If good linearity is to be maintained the input impedance of the
display device must be considerably larger than the impedance of
the coils.

However, modern electrical instruments such as counters, make it

desirable to use frequency of output voltage as a measure of speed.
This is because the frequency is not affected by temperature,
impedance of meters, and other systematic errors that can affect the
voltage readings.
Thus the frequency as measured by electronic/counters is a
measure of speed.

Drag Cup Rotor A.C. Tahogenerator

Fig. 29.45 shows a drag cup rotor type a.c. tachogenerator.
The tachogenerator consists of a stator and a rotor.
The stator has two windings mounted at 90 to each other.
The two stator windings are:
(i) excitation winding and
(ii) sensing winding.
An alternating current voltage is applied to the excitation winding,
while the output is taken from the sensing winding.
The rotor is made up of a thin aluminium cylinder which is called a
drag cup.

This light inertia rotor is highly conducting and acts as short

circuited secondary winding.
A low reluctance path is provided by a ferromagnetic core.
The principle of operation of an a.c. tachometer or drag cup
generator can be easily understood by referring to Fig. 29.45.
In this case two stator field windings are mounted at right angles to
each other i.e.

Advantages
(i) The drag cup type of a.c. tachogenerator described above is in fact
a two phase squirrel cage induction motor.
One of the windings is excited by carrier and the other winding
develops an output voltage proportional to the speed.
With the rotor stationary, the output voltage is zero.
The rotation of rotor in one direction produces an output voltage at
the terminals of the sensing winding.
The frequency of the a.c. output voltage is the same as that of the
excitation frequency with its amplitude proportional to the speed.
The output voltage is in phase with the input excitation voltage.
Reversal of the rotation produces an output voltage which is
proportional to the speed but is 180 out of phase with the input
voltage.

This can be detected with a phase sensitive demodulator. Thus the

arrangement affords a discrimination in the direction of the applied
speed.
(ii) A linear relationship between the output voltage and speed is obtained if
the carrier frequency is 5 to 10 times larger than the frequency of the speed
signal.
For this purpose the excitation winding is supplied with a frequency of 400 Hz.
(iii) The drag cup type tachometers are rugged and are in-expensive.
Also, they require little maintenance.
(iv) In some situations these tachometers are very useful since they give a
ripple free output.

Disadvantages
(i) The output voltage is proportional to the product of speed and input
voltage. Thus, in order that the calibration of the tachometer holds good,
the input voltage should be maintained absolutely constant.
(ii) These tachometers are hard to calibrate.
(iii) At high speed there exists a non-linear relationship between output
voltage and the input speed.

Hence corrections should be applied or otherwise higher carrier

frequencies should be used.
It is no doubt possible to excite the tachometer excitation winding with
frequencies higher than 400 Hz if necessary, but some performance
characteristics will change their value in the process.

. Digital

Methods

The electromechanical methods for measurement of angular

velocity are satisfactory up to about a speed of 10,000 rpm.
Higher speed measurements are possible with digital pickups
which work in conjunction with digital frequency meters.
The biggest advantage of digital methods is that no direct
physical contact is required with the shaft whose speed is to be
measured.

Therefore, no load is imposed upon the shaft by measuring

device.
The digital pickups are of two types:

(i) photo-electric type, and

(ii) inductive type.

Photoelectric Tachometer
This method of measuring speed of rotation consists of
mounting an opaque disc on the rotating shaft as is shown in
Fig.29.46.
The disc has a number of equidistant holes on its periphery.
At one side of the disc a light source is fixed and at the other
side of the disc, and on line with the light source, a light sensor
such as a photo tube or some photosensitive semi-conducting
device is placed.
When the opaque portion of the disc is between the light source
and the light sensor, the latter is unilluminated and produces no
output.
But when a hole appears between the two, the light falling upon
the sensor produces an output pulse.

The frequency at which these pulses are produced depends upon

the number of holes in the disc and its speed of rotation.
Since the number of holes is fixed, the pulse rate is a function of
speed of rotation.
The pulse rate can be measured by an electronic counter which can
be directly calibrated in terms of speed in rpm.

Advantages
This system has two distinct advantages:
(i) The output format is digital and this means that if the tachometer
is a part of a digital instrumentation system, no analog to digital
conversion is necessary.
(ii) The pulse amplitudes are constant.
This simplifies the electronic circuitry.

(i) A disadvantage is that the light source must be replaced from time
to time. A typical life time for light source is 50,000 hours.
(ii) The accuracy of this method depends principally on the error
represented by one pulse. The digital meters measure frequency by
counting the number of input pulses which occur in short period of
time called gating period.
If this period is too small serious errors may be caused. The
gating period should therefore, be chosen to give a sufficiently large
count.
In general, all the digits on the digital display should be utilized.
The factors which the user can control to minimize the errors are:
(i)gating period, and (ii) number of pulses generated per
revolution.

Toothed rotor variable reluctance tachometer

This tachometer generator consists of a metallic toothed rotor
mounted on the shaft whose speed is to be measured. This is
shown in Fig. 29.47.

A magnetic pickup is placed near the toothed rotor.

The magnetic pick up consists of a housing containing a small
permanent magnet with a coil wound round it.

When the rotor rotates, the reluctance of the air gap between
pickup and the toothed rotor changes giving rise to an induced
e.m.f. in the pickup coil.
This output is in the form of pulses, with a variety of wave
shapes.
The frequency of the pulses of induced voltage will depend upon
the number of teeth of the rotor and its speed of rotation.

Since the number of teeth is known, the speed of rotation can be

determined by measuring the frequency of pulses with an electronic
counter.

Suppose the rotor has T teeth, the speed of rotation is n rps and
number of pulses per second is P.
Number of pulses per revolution = T
Hence speed n = pulses per second/ number of teeth
= P/T rps
= (P/T)x60 rpm
...(29.46)
A typical rotor has 60 teeth.
Thus if the counter counts the pulses in one second, the counter will
directly display the speed in rpm.

We have mentioned above that the pulses have a variety of

waveshapes.
This is immaterial, as this tachometer is always connected to an
electronic counter, whose requirement is merely that the
amplitude be great enough to trigger a count.
Variable reluctance tachometer probably is the most common
type of tachometer in use today.

Advantages
The advantages of this tachometer are:

(i) It is simple and rugged in construction.

(ii) It is maintenance free.
(iii) It is easy to calibrate.
This has been illustrated earlier, if the rotor has 60 teeth and the
pulses are counted by counter in one second, the count displayed by
the counter gives the speed directly in r.p.m.
(iv) The information from this device can be easily transmitted.

Stroboscope and Stroboscopic Methods

The stroboscope is a simple, portable manually operated device
which may be used for measurement of periodic or rotary motions.
Basically, the instrument is a source of variable frequency flashing
brilliant light, the flashing frequency being set by the operator.

The circuit used is based upon variable frequency oscillator which

controls the flashing frequency.
The speed is measured by adjusting the frequency so that the
moving objects are visible only at specific intervals of time.

The method of use of the stroboscope depends upon imperfect

dynamic response of the human eye.
If a strong light is caused to flash on a moving object which, at the
time each flash occurs, occupies a given position, the object will
appear to be stationary.
Therefore the method is useful for only those types of motions
which occur regularly after a fixed interval of time, such as oscillation
or rotation.
The stroboscope consists of a source of flashing light whose
frequency can be varied and controlled.

This source is called a strobotron.

Strobotron
It is hot cathode gaseous discharge tube as shown in Fig. 29.48.
It has a cathode, an anode and two grids, one is called the inner
grid and other as the outer grid.
If the potential of the outer grid is increased or that of inner grid
is decreased beyond a certain limit, the conduction starts.
Once the conduction starts, it can be stopped only by removing
the anode potential.
The flashing of light is started by a signal from an oscillator or a
multivibrator.
When the tube is ionized and starts giving out flashes the
capacitor C is discharged and a heavy current drawn by it reduces
the anode potential due to large voltage drop in resistance R1.

The ionization stops and so does the flashing of light. In the mean
time the capacitor is recharged and waits for the next pulse to start
the flashing again.
The tube has a maximum flashing rate of 300 per second with
effective discharge time of 10 to 100 \\s.
The discharge current may be as high as 300 A.

Shaft Speed Measurements

A distinctive mark is made on the shaft or on a disc attached to
the shaft as shown in Fig. 29.49.
A stroboscope is made to flash light directly on the mark.
The flashing frequency is adjusted until the mark appears
stationary.
Under these conditions, the speed is equal to the flashing
frequency provided that the approximate speed of the shaft is
known in advance and the flashing frequency is not allowed to
depart too much away from this value.
The scale of the stroboscope is calibrated in terms of speed
which can be directly read off.

If the two conditions outlined above are not met or if there are
several identical marks on the shaft like spokes of a wheel or jaws of
a chuck, serious erros in the measurement may arise.
Consider first the case where there is only one mark as shown in
Fig.29.49.
If the mark is at A every time a flash occurs, a stationary image
appears.
This is the case when n = f where n = speed of shaft, rps and f =
flashing frequency, Hz.
However.if n = 2f,3f,4f, ...etc. i.e.,and if speed of shaft is any whole
multiple of flashing frequency the mark would appear as stationary.
Therefore, the mere fact that a stationary image is obtained does
not guarantee the shaft speed with certainty.

It should be noted that this problem does not arise if n < f.

Under these circumstances if n is a submultiple of f, multiple
images are obtained as shown in Figs. 29.50 (a) and (b).
The reason for formation of these multiple images may be
visualized considering the case where n = f/2 as shown in
Fig.29.50(a).
Suppose a flash occurs when the mark is at A. With n =f/2, the
next flash will occur after half a revolution i.e., when the mark is at
B, and the next when the mark is at A and so on.

Thus although the mark will be repeated at A when the flashes

occur, it will also repeatedly be at B at the time of alternate flashes.
Thus for n =f/2, two stationary marks will be seen.

Fig. 29.50 (b) shows the case where n = f/3, wherein a stationary mark
is seen at three different places A, B and C.
Thus the argument can be extended for cases n = f/3,f/4,f/5 ... etc.
where 3,4, 5 ... etc. stationary marks are seen for one mark on shaft.
Let us now consider the case, where there are multiple marks on the
shaft.
Fig. 29.51 shows a shaft with three identical, equispaced marks on the
shaft.
It is evident by considering the position of the marks as successive
flashes occur, it can be seen that not only will the stationary pattern
be obtained when n =f, 2f, 3f, etc. but also for certain values of n
which are smaller than f, namely n =f/3, 2f/3, 4f/3, 5f/3, etc.
This leads to the conclusion that there is a great possibility of error
when using stroboscopic methods.

From the above discussion, it is clear that in order to avoid gross

mistakes in measurements :
(i) it is safest to work with a single mark and to find the highest
flashing frequency at which a true image is seen, and
(ii) as a check that the correct value of speed, n has been found,
the frequency may be doubled which should produce a double
image.
A method for finding speed of a multiple marked shaft is given
below :
Fig. 29.52 shows a disc having 6 marks.
This disc is attached to the shaft of the rotating machine and is
illuminated by a series of successive flashes by a stroboscope.

If the speed is such that each mark of star moves forward a

distance of one point pitch (p) during the interval between
successive flashes, the pattern appears to be stationary.
This speed is called primary speed.
The pattern will also appear to be stationary if the speed or rotation
is exactly twice, three times of any multiple of this speed.
When the disc appears to be stationary, the speed of rotating
machine is given by
n =f/m
...(29.47)
where f = number of flashes per second, and m = number of point
marks.
The stroboscopic dial may be directly calibrated to read the speed.
The disc appears stationary for all speeds which are a multiple of
primary speed.

Therefore, to avoid confusion an approximate value of actual speed

should either be known or measured by other means.
The value of the exact speed may be found as under:

Single line image is obtained by adjusting the stroboscope at its

highest flashing frequency.
The flashing rate is gradually reduced and the flashing frequencies
are noted for all single line images.
If single line images are obtained at m different flashing rates f1. f2. f3,
fn, the shaft speed is given by
n=(fmf1(m-1)/(fm-f1)
where fm = highest flashing frequency, f1 = lowest flashing frequency,
m = number of flashing frequencies.

(These flashing frequencies refer to the frequencies at which

single line images are obtained).
If the shaft (and alongside the disc) rotates at a speed slightly
higher than the primary speed, the pattern appears to rotate slowly
forward.
On the other hand, if the speed is slightly less than the primary
speed and the pattern apparently moves in the reverse direction to
that of the direction of rotation of shaft.
This is very useful for measurement of slip speed in induction
motors.

Advantages
(i) This method imposes no load on the shaft.
(ii) It requires no special attachments with the shaft.

(iii) This method is particularly useful where it is inconvenient or

impossible to make contact with the shaft
(iv) It is very convenient to use a stroboscope for spot checks
on machinery speeds and for laboratory work.

Disadvantages
(i) The circuit of the variable frequency oscillator cannot be
stabilized to give a fixed frequency.
Therefore, this method is less accurate than the methods utilizing
digital meters.
(ii) The stroboscope cannot be used in surroundings where the
ambient light is above a certain level.
The stroboscope requires subdued lighting conditions for efficient
operation.