Lecture 12

Burial History

Sand Fairway

68 Ma 60 Ma

NonMarine

Nearshore
Coastal
Plain

38 Ma

29 Ma

18 Ma

10 Ma

0 Ma

Slope

Basin

Trap Analysis
Synclinal Spill Point
Controls HC Level

Cross-Section View
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

48 Ma

Synclinal Spill Point

Low

FWS 2005

Map View

Low

L12 Data Analysis

Objectives & Relevance

Objective:
Introduce some types of analyses that are
used to mature a lead into a prospect once
the geologic framework is established

Relevance:
Demonstrate some of the scientific methods
we use to determine where to drill

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Overview of Data Analysis

Once the geologic framework is complete, we can:
Analyze present-day conditions
Where are potential traps?

How much might the trap hold (volume)?

What are the key uncertainties & risks?
Look for geophysical support
DHI and AVO analysis
Model basin fill
When/where have HCs been generated?
How have rock properties changed with time?
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Outline
1. Time-to-Depth Conversion
2. Identify Sand Fairways
3. Identify Traps
4. Geophysical Evidence
Direct HC Indicators (DHIs)
Amplitude versus Offset (AVO)

5. Basin Modeling
Back-strip stratigraphy (geohistory)
Forward model (simulation)
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

1. Time-to-Depth Conversion
Horizons & Faults
in units of 2-way time
(milliseconds)

Well Data
calibration

Velocity Data
derived from seismic processing

Time-to-Depth
Conversion
Horizons & Faults
in units of depth
(meters or feet)

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Outline
1. Time-to-Depth Conversion
2. Identify Sand Fairways
3. Identify Traps
4. Geophysical Evidence
Direct HC Indicators (DHIs)
Amplitude versus Offset (AVO)

5. Basin Modeling
Back-strip stratigraphy (geohistory)
Forward model (simulation)
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

2. Identify Sand Fairways

For key seismic sequences, namely potential reservoir intervals
Reflection
Geometries
ABC codes

Interval
Attributes

Well Data
calibration

Seismic
Attribute Maps

EODs
environments
of deposition

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

Sand Fairways
FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Example: Nearshore Sands

Coastal Plain

Nearshore

Slope

Basin

NonMarine
10

Coastal10
20 Plain30

40

50

20

NearSlope
shore
30
10

20

30
40

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

40

50

Basin
L12 Data Analysis

Outline
1. Time-to-Depth Conversion
2. Identify Sand Fairways
3. Identify Traps
4. Geophysical Evidence
Direct HC Indicators (DHIs)
Amplitude versus Offset (AVO)

5. Basin Modeling
Back-strip stratigraphy (geohistory)
Forward model (simulation)
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

3. Identify Traps
Use depth (or time) structure maps, with fault zones, to look for
places where significant accumulations of HC might be trapped:

Structural traps
e.g., anticlines, high-side fault blocks, low-side roll-overs

Stratigraphic traps
e.g., sub-unconformity traps, sand pinch-outs

Combination traps (structure + stratigraphy)

e.g., deep-water channel crossing an anticline

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Structural Traps A Simple Anticline

Synclinal Spill Point

Low

If HC charge is great

A
A

Synclinal Spill Point

Controls HC Level

Low

HCs migrate to anticline

Traps progressively fills down

When HCs reaching the trap is greater, the trap is filled to a
leak point
Here there is a synclinal leak point on the east side of the
trap
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Structural Traps A Simple Anticline

Synclinal Spill Point

Low

If HC charge is limited

A
A

HC Migrating to Trap
Controls HC Level

Only enough oil has

reached the trap to fill it
to this level

Low

HCs migrate to anticline

Traps progressively fills down
When HCs reaching the trap is small, the trap is
under-filled it could hold more
Here the trap is charge-limited and is not filled to
the synclinal leak point
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Structural Traps A Roll-Over Anticline

Faulted Anticline Fault Leaks
A

Leak at Fault
Controls HC Level

Faulted Anticline Fault Seals

A

A
Synclinal Leak Point
Controls HC Level

Leak Point

Leak Point

A
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Stratigraphic Traps Sub-Unconformity & Reef

A

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Combo Traps Channel over an Anticline

Structure

Stratigraphy

Structure + Stratigraphy

Cross Section

A
A

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Outline
1. Time-to-Depth Conversion
2. Identify Sand Fairways
3. Identify Traps
4. Geophysical Evidence
Direct HC Indicators (DHIs)
Amplitude versus Offset (AVO)

5. Basin Modeling
Back-strip stratigraphy (geohistory)
Forward model (simulation)
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

What Are DHIs?

DHI = Direct Hydrocarbon Indicator

Seismic DHIs are anomalous seismic responses

related to the presence of hydrocarbons
Acoustic impedance of a porous rock decreases as
hydrocarbon replaces brine in pore spaces of the rock,
causing a seismic anomaly (DHI)
There are a number of DHI signatures; we will look at
a few common ones:
Amplitude anomaly
Fluid contact reflection
Fit to structural contours

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Typical Impedance Depth Trends

In general:
3

Oil sands are lower impedance

than water sands and shales

Gas sands are lower

impedance than oil sands

DEPTH x 103 FEET

The difference in the

impedance tends to decrease
with depth
The larger the impedance
difference between the HC
sand and its encasing shale,
the greater the anomaly
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

IMPEDANCE x 103
10
15
20

FWS 2005

Looking for
shallow gas

OIL
SAND

25

SHALE

6
7
8
9
10

Looking for
deep oil

Data for Gulf Of Mexico Clastics

L12 Data Analysis

DHIs: Amplitude Anomalies

Anomalous amplitudes

Change in amplitude
along the reflector
Low

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

High Amplitude

L12 Data Analysis

DHIs: Fluid Contacts

Hydrocarbons are
lighter than water
and tend to form flat
events at the gas/oil
contact and the
oil/water contact.

Thicker Reservoir

Fluid contact
event

Thinner Reservoir

Fluid contact
event

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

DHIs: Fit to Structure

Since hydrocarbons are

lighter than water, the
fluid contacts and
associated anomalous
seismic events are
generally flat in depth
and therefore conform
to structure, i.e., mimic
a contour line

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

What is AVO?
AVO = Amplitude vs. Offset

We can take seismic data and process it to include all

offsets (full stack) or select offsets (partial stacks)
For HC analysis, we often get a near-angle stack and a
far-angle stack
The difference in amplitude for a target interval on
near vs. far stacks can indicate the type of fluid within
the pore space of the rock

AVO analysis examines such amplitude differences

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Some Additional Geophysics

Energy
Source

Receiver

Layer N

Seismic reflections are

generated at
acoustic boundaries

Layer N +1

The amplitude of a seismic reflection

is a function of:
velocities above & below an interface
densities above & below an interface
- the angle of incidence of the
seismic energy

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

Change in
Impedance

L12 Data Analysis

Why Do We Care?
Reflection amplitude varies with as a function of the
physical properties above and below the interface
Rock / lithologic properties
Properties of the fluids in the pores
Examining variations in amplitude with angle (or offset)
may help us unravel lithology and fluid effects,
especially at the top of a reservoir

Top of Reservoir
Base of Reservoir

Impedance
Lo

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

Hi

Zero
Offset

Near
Offset

Full
Offset

FWS 2005

Far
Offset
L12 Data Analysis

AVO: Quantified with 2 Parameters

We quantify the AVO response in terms of two parameters:
Intercept (A) - where the curve intersects 0
Slope (B) - a linear fit to the AVO data
AVO Curve

Angle/Offset

AVO Crossplot

Negative Intercept
Negative Slope

Angle/Offset

For some reservoirs, the AVO

response differs when gas, oil
and water fill the pore space

AVO Gradient (B)

Time

Amplitude

CDP Gather: HC Leg

Water
Oil
Gas

AVO Intercept (A)

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Seismic Example
Alpha

Fluid Contact?
Gas over Oil?
Fluid Contact?
Oil over Water?

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Analyzing Present-Day Conditions

From present-day configurations, we can:
Predict where Sand Fairways & Source Intervals
Predict EODs and infer lithologies

Evaluate the Trap Configuration

Identify and Size Potential Traps
Consider spill / leak points

Consider if a Sealing Unit Exists

Can shales provide top & lateral seal?

Identify where a distinct HC response occurs

DHI and AVO analysis
Model a simple HC Migration Case
Use present-day dips on stratal units
Assume buoyancy-driven migration
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

We Would Like to Know More

We need to incorporate the element of time:
When did the traps form?
When did the source rocks generate HCs?

What was the attitude (dip) of the strata when the HCs
were migrating?
What is the quality of the reservoir ( , k)

How adequate is the seal?

How have temperature and pressure conditions changed
through time?
To answer these questions, we have to model the basins
history from the time of deposition to the present
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Outline
1. Time-to-Depth Conversion
2. Identify Sand Fairways
3. Identify Traps
4. Geophysical Evidence
Direct HC Indicators (DHIs)
Amplitude versus Offset (AVO)

5. Basin Modeling
Back-strip stratigraphy (geohistory)
Forward model (simulation)
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Basin Modeling
Back-strip the
Present-day
Strata to
Unravel
the Basins
History

Model Rock
& Fluid
Properties
Forward
through Time

0 Ma

18 Ma

Time Steps are

Limited to
Mapped Horizons

Time Steps are

Regular Intervals
as Defined by the
User

29 Ma

36 Ma

42 Ma
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Basin Modeling
We start with the present-day stratigraphy
Then we back-strip the interpreted sequences to
get information of basin formation and fill
For some basins, we can deduce a heat flow history
from the subsidence history (exercise)
Next we model basin fill forward through time at a
uniform time step (typically or 1 Ma)
If we have well data, we check our model
Temperature data
Organic maturity (vitrinite reflectance)

Porosity

Given a calibrated basin model, we predict

HC generation from source intervals
Reservoir porosity
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Simple Model of HC Migration

Generate oil and gas at lower left

HCs percolate into porous interval (white)
Trap A fills with oil and gas gas displaces oil
Trap B fills with spilled oil and gas
Seal at B will only hold a certain thickness of gas
At trap B gas leaks while oil spills

Trap A

Trap C

Trap B

Spillage of
Excess Gas

Traps with
unlimited
charge

Migration Path
Of Spilled Oil
Gas separator

Source
Generating HCs
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Intro to Exercise
Goal: To map the extent of the A1 gas-filled reservoir
W

E
A1 Gas
Sand

Figure 1

Inline 840
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Changes in Amplitude Indicate Fluid

Gas Sand

Water Sand

Traces are
clipped

Figure 1

Inline 840
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis

Fluids within the A1 Sand

Extent of Gas
Figure 1

Inline 840

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

FWS 2005

L12 Data Analysis