Frequencies

Signals
Antennas
Signal propagation
Multiplexing
Spread spectrum
Modulation
Cellular systems

Spectrum Allocation
twisted
pair

coax cable

1 Mm
300 Hz

10 km
30 kHz

VLF

LF

optical transmission

100 m
3 MHz

MF

HF

VLF = Very Low Frequency

LF = Low Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency
HF = High Frequency
VHF = Very High Frequency

1m
300 MHz

VHF

10 mm
30 GHz

UHF

SHF

EHF

100 m
3 THz

infrared

where c is the speed of light

visible light UV

UHF = Ultra High Frequency

SHF = Super High Frequency
EHF = Extra High Frequency
UV = Ultraviolet Light

Relationship between frequency f and wave length :

= c/f

1 m
300 THz

3x108m/s

Frequencies Allocated for Mobile

Communication
VHF & UHF ranges for mobile radio
allows for simple, small antennas for cars

deterministic propagation characteristics

less subject to weather conditions > more reliable connections

SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite

communication
small antennas with directed transmission
large bandwidths available

Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF

spectrum
some systems planned up to EHF
limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules

weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy

rainfall, etc.

Signals
Physical representation of data
Function of time and location
Signal parameters: parameters representing the value of

data
classification

continuous time/discrete time

continuous values/discrete values
analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
digital signal = discrete time and discrete values

Signal parameters of periodic signals:

period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift

sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:

s(t) = At sin(2 ft t + t)

Signals
Different representations of signals
amplitude (amplitude domain)
frequency spectrum (frequency domain)

phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase in polar coordinates)

Q = M sin

A [V]

A [V]
t[s]

I= M cos

f [Hz]

Composite signals mapped into frequency domain

using Fourier transformation

Digital signals need

infinite frequencies for perfect representation

modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (->analog signal!)

Antennas

Antennas are used to radiate and receive EM waves

(energy)
Antennas link this energy between the ether and a device
such as a transmission line (e.g., coaxial cable)
Antennas consist of one or several radiating elements
through which an electric current circulates
Types of antennas:

omnidirectional
directional
phased arrays
adaptive
optimal

Principal characteristics used to characterize an antenna

are:

radiation pattern
directivity
gain
efficiency

Isotropic Antennas
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions

(three dimensional) - only a theoretical reference

antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects (vertical
and/or horizontal)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around
an antenna
y

ideal
isotropic
radiator

Omnidirectional Antennas: simple

dipoles
Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles

with lengths /4, or Hertzian dipole: /2 (2 dipoles)

Shape/size of antenna proportional to wavelength
/4

/2

Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y

x
side view (xy-plane)

z
side view (yz-plane)

simple
dipole

top view (xz-plane)

Gain: ratio of the maximum power in the direction of the

main lobe to the power of an isotropic radiator (with the

same average power)

Directional Antennas
Often used for microwave connections (directed point

to point transmission) or base stations for mobile

phones (e.g., radio coverage of a valley or sectors for
directed
frequency reuse)
y

side view (xy-plane)

side view (yz-plane)

antenna

z top view (xz-plane)

top view, 3 sector

top view, 6 sector

sectorized
antenna

Array Antennas
Grouping of 2 or more antennas to obtain radiating

characteristics that cannot be obtained from a

single element
Antenna diversity
switched diversity, selection diversity

receiver chooses antenna with largest output

diversity combining

combine output power to produce gain

cophasing needed to avoid cancellation
/4

/2

+
ground plane

/4

/2

/2

/2

Signal Propagation Ranges

Transmission range
communication possible
low error rate

Detection range
detection of the signal

possible
no communication
possible, high error rate

Interference range
signal may not be

detected
signal adds to the
background noise

sender

transmission
distance
detection
interference

Signal Propagation I
Radio wave propagation is affected by the following

mechanisms:
reflection at large obstacles
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges

scattering

reflection

diffraction

Signal Propagation
The signal is also subject to degradation resulting from

propagation in the mobile radio environment. The

principal phenomena are:
pathloss due to distance covered by radio signal (frequency dependent, less

at low frequencies)
fading (frequency dependent, related to multipath propagation)
shadowing induced by obstacles in the path between the transmitted and
the receiver

shadowing

Path-loss
Free-space pathloss:
To define free-space propagation, consider an isotropic source consisting of a
transmitter with a power Pt W. At a distance d from this source, the power
transmitted is spread uniformly on the surface of a sphere of radius d. The power
density at the distance d is then as follows:

Sr = Pt/4d2

The power received by an antenna at a distance d from the

transmitter is then equal to:

Pr = PtAe/4d2
where A is the effective area of the antenna.
e

Path-loss

Noting that Ae = Gr/(4/2)

where Gr is the gain of the receiver

And if we replace the isotropic source by a transmitting

antenna with a gain Gt the power received at a distance d

of the transmitter by a receiving antenna of gain Gr
becomes:
Pr = PtGrGt/[4(d/)]2

In decibels the propagation pathloss (PL) is given by:

PL(db) = -10log10(Pr/Pt) = -10log10(GrGt/[4(d/)]2)

This is for the ideal case and can only be applied sensibly

to satellite systems and short range LOS propagation.

Multipath Propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and

receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction

signal at sender
signal at receiver

Positive effects of multipath:

enables communication even when transmitter and receiver are not in LOS

conditions - allows radio waves effectively to go through obstacles by getting

around them thereby increasing the radio coverage area

Effects of Mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and location
signal paths change

different delay variations of different signal parts

different phases of signal parts

quick changes in the power received (short term fading)

power

long term
fading

Additional changes in
distance to sender
obstacles further away

slow changes in the average power

short term fading
received (long term fading)

Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques are used to allow many users to share a

common transmission resource.

In our case the users are mobile and the transmission resource is
the radio spectrum.
Sharing a common resource requires an access mechanism that
will control the multiplexing mechanism.
As in wireline systems, it is desirable to allow the simultaneous
transmission of information between two users engaged in a
connection. This is called duplexing.
Two types of duplexing exist:
Frequency division duplexing (FDD), whereby two frequency channels are assigned to a

connection, one channel for each direction of transmission.

Time division duplexing (TDD), whereby two time slots (closely placed in time for
duplex effect) are assigned to a connection, one slot for each direction of transmission.

channels ki

Multiplexing

k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

Multiplexing in 3 dimensions

time (t) (TDM)

c
t

frequency (f) (FDM)

code (c) (CDM)

s1

f
s2

Goal: multiple use

of a shared medium
s3

Narrowband versus Wideband

These multiple access schemes can be grouped into

two categories:
Narrowband systems - the total spectrum is divided into a large number of

narrow radio bands that are shared.

Wideband systems - the total spectrum is used by each mobile unit for

both directions of transmission. Only applicable for TDM and CDM.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands
A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time orthogonal
system
Advantages:
no dynamic coordination

necessary, i.e., sync. and

framing
works also for analog signals
low bit rates cheaper,
delay spread

Disadvantages:
waste of bandwidth

if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
inflexible
guard bands
t
narrow filters

k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

c
f

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain

amount of time orthogonal system

Advantages:
only one carrier in the

medium at any time

throughput high - supports bursts
flexible multiple slots
no guard bands ?!

Disadvantages:
Framing and precise

synchronization
necessary
high bit rates
at each
Tx/Rx
t

k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

c
f

Hybrid TDM/FDM
Combination of both methods
A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain

amount of time (slot).

Example: GSM, hops from one band to another each time
slot
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
Advantages:
better protection against

tapping (hopping among

frequencies)
protection against frequency
selective interference

Disadvantages:
Framing and

sync. required
t

c
f

Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

Each channel has a unique code

(not necessarily orthogonal)

All channels use the same
spectrum at the same time
Advantages:

k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

bandwidth efficient

no coordination and synchronization

necessary
good protection against interference and
tapping

Disadvantages:
lower user data rates due to high gains

required to reduce interference

more complex signal regeneration

2.19.1

Issues with CDM

CDM has a soft capacity. The more users the more codes that are used.
However as more codes are used the signal to interference (S/I) ratio will drop
and the bit error rate (BER) will go up for all users.
CDM requires tight power control as it suffers from far-near effect. In other
words, a user close to the base station transmitting with the same power as a
user farther away will drown the latters signal. All signals must have more or
less equal power at the receiver.
Rake receivers can be used to improve signal reception. Time delayed versions
(a chip or more delayed) of the signal (multipath signals) can be collected and

used to make bit level decisions.

Soft handoffs can be used. Mobiles can switch base stations without switching
carriers. Two base stations receive the mobile signal and the mobile is receiving
from two base stations (one of the rake receivers is used to listen to other
signals).

Burst transmission - reduces interference

Types of CDM I
Two types exist:
Direct Sequence CDM (DS-CDM)

spreads the narrowband user signal (Rbps) over the full

spectrum by multiplying it by a very wide bandwidth signal
(W). This is done by taking every bit in the user stream and
replacing it with a pseudonoise (PN) code (a long bit sequence
called the chip rate). The codes are orthogonal (or approx..
orthogonal).

This results in a processing gain G = W/R (chips/bit). The

higher G the better the system performance as the lower the
interference. G2 indicates the number of possible codes. Not
all of the codes are orthogonal.
Frequency
Code
CDMA

Time

Types of CDM II
Frequency hopping CDM (FH-CDM)

FH-CDM is based on a narrowband FDM system in which an

individual users transmission is spread out over a number of
channels over time (the channel choice is varied in a
pseudorandom fashion). If the carrier is changed every
symbol then it is referred to as a fast FH system, if it is
changed every few symbols it is a slow FH system.
A
B
B

A
A

A
B

A
A

Orthogonality and Codes

An m-bit PN generator generates N=2m - 1 different

codes.
Out of these codes only m codes are orthogonal ->

zero cross correlation.

For example a 3 bit shift register circuit shown below

generates N=7 codes.

Mod2 Adder (1+0=1, 0+1=1, 0+0=0, 1+1=0)
+

1
Initial State:

2
1
0
1
0
0
1
1

3
1
1
0
1
0
0
1

1
1
1
0
1
0
0

Orthogonal Codes
A pair of codes is said to be orthogonal if the cross

correlation is zero: Rxy(0) = 0 .

For two m-bit codes: x1,x2,x3,...,xm and y1,y2,y3,...,ym:

For example: x = 0011 and y = 0110. Replace 0 with -1, 1 stays as is. Then:
x = -1 -1 1 1
y = -1 1 1 -1
----------------Rxy(0) = 1 -1 +1 -1 = 0

Example of an Orthogonal
Code: Walsh Codes
In 1923 J.L. Walsh introduced a complete set of

orthogonal codes. To generate a Walsh code the

following two steps must be followed:
Step 1: represent a NxN matrix as four quadrants (start off with 2x2)

Step 2: make the first, second and third quadrants indentical and invert the

fourth
b
b

bb
b b

bb
b b

bb
b b

Code 1

Code 2

or
0

2 codes: 11 and 10
bb
b b

11
10
11
10

11
10
00
01

or

2 codes: 00 and 01
0
0
0
0

0
1
0
1

00
01
11
10

Code 1
Code 2
Code 3
Code 4

Modulation
Digital modulation
digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter

differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness

Analog modulation
shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier

Motivation
smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
Frequency Division Multiplexing
medium characteristics

Basic schemes
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)

Modulation and Demodulation

digital
data
101101001

digital
modulation

analog
baseband
signal

analog
modulation

radio transmitter

radio
carrier

analog
demodulation

radio
carrier

analog
baseband
signal

synchronization
decision

digital
data
101101001

radio receiver

Digital Modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):

very simple
t

low bandwidth requirements

very susceptible to interference

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

needs larger bandwidth

Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

more complex
robust against interference

Advanced Frequency Shift Keying

bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance

between the carrier frequencies

special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts
MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration
of each bit is doubled
depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher
or lower frequency, original or inverted is chosen
the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency
of the other
even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian
low-pass filter GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in
GSM

Example of MSK
1

0
bit

data

even

0101

even bits

odd

0011

odd bits

signal
value

hnnh
- - ++

low
frequency

h: high frequency
n: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal

high
frequency

MSK
signal

t
No phase shifts!

Advanced Phase Shift Keying

BPSK (Binary Phase Shift

Keying):
bit value 0: sine wave
1

bit value 1: inverted sine wave

very simple PSK

10

low spectral efficiency

11

robust, used e.g. in satellite systems

QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift

Keying):
00

2 bits coded as one symbol

symbol determines shift of sine wave

01

needs less bandwidth compared to BPSK

more complex

Often also transmission of

relative, not absolute phase

shift: DQPSK - Differential
QPSK (IS-136, PACS, PHS)

t
11

10

00

01

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM):

combines amplitude and phase modulation

it is possible to code n bits using one symbol
2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK
bit error rate increases with n, but less errors
compared to comparable PSK schemes
Q

0010
0011

0001
0000
I

1000

Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)

Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the
same phase, but different amplitude.
0000 and 1000 have different phase,
but same amplitude.
used in standard 9600 bit/s
modems

Spread spectrum technology: CDM

Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent

fading can wipe out narrow band signals for duration

of the interference
Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad
band signal using a special code
signal
power

interference

spread
signal

power

protection against narrowdetection

band interference
at

spread
interference

receiver
f

protection against narrowband interference

Side effects:
coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
tap-proof

Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

Effects of spreading and

interference
P

i)

user signal
broadband interference
narrowband interference

ii)
f

sender
P

iii)

iv)
f

v)
f

receiver

2.28.1

Spreading and frequency selective fading

channel
quality

narrowband channels

4
frequency
narrow band
signal

guard space

channel
quality

spread
spectrum

spread spectrum channels

frequency

2.29.1

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)

XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number

(chipping sequence)
many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal

Advantages

tb

user data

reduces frequency selective

fading
in cellular networks

base stations can use the

same frequency range
several base stations can
detect and recover the signal
soft handover

Disadvantages

XOR

tc

chipping
sequence
01101010110101

=
resulting
signal

01101011001010

tb: bit period

tc: chip period

precise power control necessary

2.30.1

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)

spread
spectrum
signal

user data
X

transmit
signal
modulator

chipping
sequence

radio
carrier
transmitter

correlator
lowpass
filtered
signal

received
signal
demodulator
radio
carrier

products

sampled
sums
data

integrator

decision

chipping
sequence
receiver

2.31.1

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

Discrete changes of carrier frequency
sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number

sequence

Two versions
Fast Hopping:

several frequencies per user bit

Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency

Advantages
frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
simple implementation
uses only small portion of spectrum at any time

Disadvantages
not as robust as DSSS
simpler to detect

2.32.1

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

tb
user data
0

td

f3

slow
hopping
(3 bits/hop)

f2
f1
f

td

f3

fast
hopping
(3 hops/bit)

f2
f1
t

tb: bit period

td: dwell time

2.33.1

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

user data
modulator

modulator

frequency
synthesizer

transmitter

hopping
sequence

narrowband
signal

received
signal

data
demodulator

hopping
sequence

spread
transmit
signal

narrowband
signal

frequency
synthesizer

demodulator

receiver

2.34.1

Concept of Cellular
Communications

In the late 60s it was proposed to alleviate the problem of spectrum

congestion by restructuring the coverage area of mobile radio systems.
The cellular concept does not use broadcasting over large areas. Instead
smaller areas called cells are handled by less powerful base stations that

use less power for transmission. Now the available spectrum can be reused from one cell to another thereby increasing the capacity of the
system.
However this did give rise to a new problem, as a mobile unit moved it
could potentially leave the coverage area (cell) of a base station in which it

established the call. This required complex controls that enabled the
handing over of a connection (called handoff) to the new cell that the
mobile unit moved into.
In summary, the essential elements of a cellular system are:

Low power transmitter and small coverage areas called cells

Spectrum (frequency) re-use

Handoff

Cell structure
Implements space division multiplex: base station

covers a certain transmission area (cell)

Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
Advantages of cell structures:
higher capacity, higher number of users
less transmission power needed
more robust, decentralized
base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally

Problems:
fixed network needed for the base stations
handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
interference with other cells

2.35.1

Cellular Network
Other MSCs
F1,F2,..,F6

(IS 41)
F7,F8,..,F12
PSTN

F7,F8,..,F12

MSC
F1,F2,..,F6

Base
Station
Handoff
Cell

MSC: Mobile Switching Center

PSTN: Public Switched Telephone Network

(Theoretical)

Practical Cell - coverage depends on antenna location and

height, transmitter power, terrain, foliage, buildings, etc.

Some Definitions
Forward path or down link - from base station down to the mobile
Reverse path or up link - from the mobile up to the base station
The mobile unit - a portable voice and/or data comm. transceiver. It has a 10
digit telephone number that is represented by a 34 bit mobile identification
number -> (215) 684-3201 is divided into two parts: MIN1: 215 translated into
10bits and MIN2: 684-3201 translated into 24bits. In addition each mobile unit
is also permanently programmed at the factory with a 32 bit electronic serial
number (ESN) which guards against tampering.
The cell - a geographical area covered by Radio Frequency (RF) signals. It is
essentially a radio communication center comprising radios, antennas and
supporting equipment to enable mobile to land and land to mobile

communication. Its shape and size depend on the location, height , gain and
directivity of the antenna, the power of the transmitter, the terrain, obstacles
such as foliage, buildings, propagation paths, etc. It is a highly irregular shape,
its boundaries defined by received signal strength! But for traffic engineering
purposes and system planning and design a hexagonal shape is used.

More definitions
The base station (BS) - a transmitter and receiver that

relays signals (control and information (voice or data))

from the mobile unit to the MSC and vice versa.
The mobile switching center (MSC) - a switching
center that controls a cluster of cells. Base stations are
connected to the MSC via wireline links. The MSC is
directly connected to the PSTN and is responsible for
all calls related to mobiles located within its domain.
MSCs intercommunicate using a link protocol
specified by IS (International Standard) 41. This
enables roaming of mobile units (i.e. obtaining service
outside of the home base). The MSC is also
responsible for billing, it keeps track of air time, errors,

The Basic Cellular

Communication Protocol I
Every mobile unit whether at home or roaming, has to

register with the MSC controlling the area it is in. If it

does not register then the MSC does not know of its
existence and will not be able to process any of its calls.
The home location register (HLR) is used to keep
information regarding a mobile unit/user, it is a
database for storing and managing subscriber
information. When roaming, a mobile unit registers
with a foreign MSC and data from its HRL is relayed to
the visitor location register (VLR). The VLR is a
dynamic database used to store roaming mobile
subscriber information. The HLR and VLR
communicate via the MSCs using IS 41.

The Basic Cellular

Communication Protocol II
A mobile unit when enabled (power on) scans the control channels and tunes
to the one with the strongest signal. The control channels are known and carry
signals pertaining to the cell sites, e.g. transmission power to be used by the
mobile unit in a particular cell. This process is called initialization.
If the mobile wants to initiate a call, it sends in a service request on the reverse
path control link. The service request contains the destination phone number
and identification information (MIN1, MIN2, and ESN) of the source mobile
unit to verify the originator.
When the base station receives the request, it relays it to the MSC. The MSC
then checks to see it is it a number of another mobile or of a fixed user. If the

latter the call is forwarded to the PSTN. If the former, it checks to see if the
destination mobile unit is a subscriber (local or visitor/roamer). If not it relays
the call to the PSTN to forward to the appropriate MSC.

The Basic Cellular

Communication Protocol III
If the destination is within its cluster it sends out a

paging message to all the base stations. Every base

station then relays this message by broadcasting it on
its control channel. If the destination mobile unit is
enabled (power on) it will detect this message and
respond to the base station.
The base station relays this response to the MSC. The

MSC then allocates channels to both the source mobile

unit and the destination mobile unit. The
corresponding base stations pass this information on
to the respective mobile units. The mobile units then
tune to the correct channels and the communication

Spectrum and Capacity Issues

Spectrum is limited
Allocated Spectrum
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9

FDM
F1,F2,...F9: frequency channels

Frequency Re-use I
To be able to increase the capacity of the system,

frequencies must be re-used in the cellular layout (unless

we are using spread spectrum techniques).
Fx:subset of cannot be re-used in adjacent cells because of
Frequencies
frequencies
used in a
cell
Cochannel
Interference

F2

co-channel interference. The cells using the same

frequencies must be dispersed across the cellular layout.
F1
F2
F1 the more efficient
The closer the spacing
the scheme!
Minimum
Re-use distance

Frequency Re-use II
For an omni-directional antenna, with constant signal

power, each cell site coverage area would be circular

(barring any terrain irregularities or obstacles).
To achieve full coverage without dead spots, a series of

regular polygons for cell sites are required.

The hexagonal was chosen as it comes the closest to

the shape of a circle, and a hexagonal layout requires

fewer cells (when compared to triangles or rectangles,
it has the largest surface area given the same radius R)
-> less cells.
Goal is to find the minimum distance between cells

60%

i,j - integers -> intercell distance

along cell centers

Frequency re-use distance I

i

i,j: multiples of 31/2R

D
A
R
D - min. dist.

D=31/2R[i2+j 2+ij]1/2
R = radius of hexagonal

R: cell radius

i,j are integers

R
(u,v)

1
31/2R

31/2R
R

300

1
(0,0)
u2-u1=3 1/2Ri
v2-v1=31/2 Rj

Frequency re-use distance II

For two adjacent cells: D=31/2R
The closest we can place the same frequencies is called

the first tier around the center cell (minimal re-use

distance
-> lower -> more capacity!).
Cluster of N cells with
Original cell
different frequencies

For
simplicity
we only take the first tier of cells into
First
tier of interferers

account
co-channel interference (i.e., we ignore
Second tierfor
of interferers
2nd,
3rd,
etc. tiers, cause much less interference,
They are
all equidistant
away from each other (D)
negligible!).
Each cell has exactly six equidistant interfering cells

Frequency re-use distance III

Radius = D

Radius

First Tier
(all use same
frequencies as
center cell)

R
Cluster of N cells with
frequencies different
from center cell
(large hexagon)

Frequency re-use distance III

Radius = dist. between two co-channel cells =

(3R2[i2+j2+ij])1/2 = D
Since the area of a hexagon is proportional to the

square of the distance between its center and a vertex

(i.e., its radius), the area of the large hexagon is:
Alarge = k[Radius]2 = k[3R2[i2+j2+ij]]
where k is a constant.
Similarly the area of each cell (i.e., small hexagon) is:
Asmall = k[R2]
Comparing these expressions we find that:
2

 From symmetry we can see that the large hexagon

Frequency
re-use
encloses the center
cluster ofdistance
N cells plus 1/3 IV
the

number of the cells associated with 6 other

peripheral hexagons. Thus the total number of cells
enclosed by the first tier is:
N+6(1/3N) = 3N

Since the area of a hexagon is proportional to the

number of cells contained within it:

Alarge/Asmall = 3N/1 = 3N

Substituting we get:
3N = 3[i2+j2+ij] = D2/R2
Or:

D/R = q =(3N)1/2

q is referred to as the reuse ratio!

 The co-channel interference ratio S/I is given as:

S
S -------Co-channel Interference
I
--- = ---------------N
I
i

I k

k=1

S = desired signal power in a cell (note that many texts

use C instead of S), Ik = interference signal power
from the kth cell, Ni = number of interfering cells.
If we only assume the first tier of interfering cells, then

Ni=6,and all cells interfere equally (they are all

equidistant!).
The signal power at any point is inversely proportional

to the inverse of the distance from the source raised to

Co-channel Interference II
Ik is proportional to Dg , and S is proportional to Rg ,

where g is the propagation path loss and is dependent

g
g systems it is
upon terrain environment.
For
cellular
S
R
1
q
-=
---------------=
--------------=
----often taken as = I4.
g
g
6

Therefore:

6D

6 q

For a given S/I how to get N

Recall that: D/R = q =(3N)1/2
An S/I = 18db (decibels=10logS/I) = 63.1, gives an

acceptable voice quality.

Therefore q = [6x63.1]1/4 = 4.41 when g = 4
Substituting for N we get N = (4.41)2/3 equals approx. 7
This means that if we have 49 frequency channels

available, each cell gets 49/7 = 7 frequency channels.

If we have 82 available then 82/7 = 11.714 -> which

means that 5 cells will have 12 and 2 cells will have 11!
How does that translate to i and j for a cell layout?

Calculating i, j, and D from N

7

6
1

3
4

N=7 -> i=2, j=1

f2

D = 4.41R

f3

f5
f4

f7

f2
f6

f1
f3

f5
f4

f7

f1
f3

f2
f6

i
2

f5

f2

 Frequency reuse only with a certain distance

between the base

stations
Frequency
planning

Standard model using 7 frequencies:

f3
f5

f4

f2

f6
f1

f3

f5
f4

f7

f1

f2

Fixed frequency assignment:

certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell

problem: different traffic load in different cells

Dynamic frequency assignment:

base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies

already used in neighbor cells

more capacity in cells with more traffic
assignment can also be based on interference measurements

2.36.1

Increasing Capacity
We can see that by reducing the area of a cell we can

increase capacity as we will have more cells each with

its own set of frequencies.
What is drawback of shrinking the size of the cells

(cell splitting)? Increase in the number of handoffs ->

increased load on the system! Also need more
infrastrucutre -> base stations (each cell needs a BS).
An easier solution exists, sectorization. It does not

reduce handoffs, its advantage: it does not require

more infrastructure.

Sectorization I
WeF1+F2+F3=Fa
can also increase
the capacity
by using sectors in
F1+F2+F3+F4+F5+F6=Fa
120%
60%

cells.

F1
F3

Directional antennas
instead of being
F2

F1
F6

F2

F3
F4

F5
omnidirectional,
will only beam over a certain
angle.
3 sectors
Fa: A cells set of frequencies
6 sectors

f3

f3
f2

f1

f2
f1

f3
f2

f1
f3

f2

f2
f1

f1
f3

f3

f3

3 cell cluster

f2
f2
f2
f1
f1 f
f
1
f3
f3
h
h
3
h1 2
h1 2
g2 h3 g2 h3
g2
g1
g1
g
1
g3
g3
g3

f3

3 cell cluster with 3 sectors

Sectorization II
What does that mean?
We can now assign frequency sets to sectors and
A: set of frequencies in a sector

decrease the re-use distance or improve S/I ratio (i.e.

A
A
signal
quality).
First Tier
A:Do not interfere with
(all use same
frequencies in
sectors as
A center cell)

Asector of center cell

Question: By how much? Depends on number of

AA

sectors (i.e., 60% or 120%).

A
A:Cause Cell site to
mobile interference

A:Cause Mobile to cell

site interference

Other Capacity or Signal

Improvement Tech.
Dynamic channel allocation (DCA): allows cells to

borrow frequencies from other cells within the cluster

if not used by them. Can be used to alleviate hotspots.
Another implementation basically has all channels
available to all cells, they get allocated based upon
demand.
Power control: by reducing the transmitted power, the

battery life of a mobile can be extended. It also helps in

reducing -channel and adjacent channel interference.