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Protection of Generators

& Transformers
Presented By:
Er. H.S. Dhaliwal
Assistant Professor,
Deptt. Of Electrical Engg
BHSBIET, Lehragaga.
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Introduction
In a generating station the generator and transformer
are the most expensive equipments and hence it is
desirable to employ a protective system to isolate the
faulty equipment as quickly as possible to keep the
healthy section in normal operation and to ensure
uninterruptable power supply.
The basic electrical quantities those are likely to
change during abnormal fault conditions are current,
voltage, phase angle and frequency . Protective relays
utilizes one or more of these quantities to detect
abnormal conditions in a power system.

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Protection of
Transformers
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Transformer
A Transformer is a device that transfers
electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductorsthe
transformer's coils. A varying current in the
first or primary winding creates a varying
magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and
thus a varying magnetic field through the
secondary winding. This varying magnetic
field induces a varying electromotive force
(EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding.
This effect is called mutual induction.
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Transformer

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Power Transformers
Power transforms are required to raise or
lower down the level of voltage at the
substations according to the requirement of
transmission or distribution of the substation.
Various size transformers are available at the
substation. The rating of power transformers
is of several hundreds of MVA.

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Power Transformer

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Why Protection is required ?


A fault in electrical system is defined as a defect
in the electrical circuit due to which the flow of
current is diverted from its intended path. Fault
currents being excessive , they can damage not
only the faulty equipment, but also the
installation through which the fault current is
fed. Fault in important equipment like
transformer can effect the stability of power
system. To improve the system stability
protection is required.
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Transformer Fault Categories


1. Winding and terminal faults

2. Sustained or uncleared external faults


3. Abnormal operating conditions such as
overload, overvoltage and over fluxing.
4. Core faults

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Faults on Transformer
10-12% of total faults occurring in the power
system are due to the faults on the Transformers.
The following are the major causes of faults in
transformers:
1. Insulation Failure
2. Faults in tap-changer
3. Faults in bushing
4. Faults in protection circuit
5. Overloading, Overvoltage
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Power Transformer Protection


Abnormal Condition

Protection

Incipient faults below oil level results in


decomposition of oil

Buchholz relay sounds alarm

Large internal faults


Phase to- phase, phase-to-ground

Buchholz relay trips the circuit-breaker

Faults in tap changer

Percentage differential protection

Saturation of magnetic circuit

1. Over fluxing protection


2. Overvoltage protection

Earth faults

1. Differential protection
2. Earth fault relay

Overloads

1. Thermal overload relays


2. Temperature relay sound alarm

High voltage surges due to lightening,


switching

1. Horn gaps
2. Surge arrestors
3. R-C Surge suppressors

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Transformer Connections

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Transformer Connections

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Phasor Diagrams of Transformer


connections

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Pressure Relief and Pressure Relay


Pressure relay and pressure relief device is mounted
on transformer tank. It releases gas pressure to the
atmosphere during:
High overload peaks
Prolonged overloads
Arcing faults within oil
Pressure relief valve is spring loaded and has a
seal-seat. When the pressure inside the tank
increases above a certain value, the force on
movable sub-assembly exceeds spring force and
the valve operates. The alarm contacts are closed.
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Pressure Relief and Pressure Relay

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Buccholz Relay
Buchholz relay is a gas- actuated relay
installed in oil-immersed transformers for
protection against all kind of faults. It is used
to gives an alarm in case of slow developing
faults or incipient faults in the transformer
and to disconnect the transformer from the
supply in the event of severe internal faults. It
is installed in the pipe between the
conservator and main tank as shown in fig11
below. This relay is used in oil-immersed
transformers of rating above 750 kVA.
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Buccholz Relay

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Buchholz Relay
Petcock
Counter balance
weight

Alarm bucket

Mercury switch

Oil level

To oil
conservator

From transformer

Trip bucket

Aperture adjuster
Drain plug

Deflector plate
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Mounting of Buccholz Relay

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Differential Protection
Overall differential protection may be justified for larger
transformers (generally > 5MVA).
Provides fast operation on any winding

Measuring principle :
Based on the same circulating current principle as the restricted
earth fault protection
However, it employs the biasing technique, to maintain stability
for heavy through fault current

Biasing allows mismatch between CT outputs.


It is essential for transformers with tap changing facility.
Another important requirement of transformer differential
protection is immunity to magnetising in rush current.
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Differential Protection
The differential protection used for
transformers is based on the principle of
current circulation. This type of protection is
mostly used for transformers as this
responds not only to inter turn fault but also
provides protection against phase-to-phase
faults.

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Differential Protection

In a power transformer, the currents in primary and


secondary are to be compared. As these two
currents are usually different, therefore the use of
identical transformers will give differential current
and operate the relay even under no load
conditions. The difference in magnitude of currents
in primary and secondary of power transformers is
compensated by different turns ratios of C.T.s. If T is
the turns ratio of power transformer, then the turns
ration of C.T.s on LV side is made T times the turns
ration of the C.T.s on HV side. When this condition is
fulfilled the secondaries of the two C.T.s will carry
same current under normal conditions. And thus no
current will flow through the relay and it remains
inoperative.
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Differential Protection

Correct application of differential protection requires CT ratio and winding


connections to match those of transformer.
CT secondary circuit should be a replica of primary system.
Consider :
(1)
(2)
(3)

Difference in current magnitude


Phase shift
Zero sequence currents
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Differential Protection

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Differential Connections

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Use of Interposing CT

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Biased Differential Scheme

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OVER CURRENT PROTECTION


The over current protection is needed to
protect the transformer from sustained
overloads and short circuits. Induction type
over current relays are used which in addition
to providing overload protection acts as back
up relays for protection of transformer
winding fault.

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OVER CURRENT PROTECTION


Requirements

Fast operation for primary short circuits


Discrimination with downstream protections

Operation within transformer withstand


Non-operation for short or long term overloads

Non-operation for magnetising inrush


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OVER CURRENT PROTECTION

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EARTH FAULT PROTECTION


The earth fault protection is used to provide
protection against any earth fault in the
windings of the transformer. It works on the
principle that when the transformer winding is
sound the currents in all the three phases will
balance and no current will spill into the earth
fault relay. The arrangement is such that the
relay does not respond to any out of balance
current between windings caused by tap
changing arrangement
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EARTH FAULT PROTECTION

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COMBINED OVER CURRENT AND


EARTH FAULT PROTECTION

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Combined Differential and


Earth Fault Protection

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Frame leakage Protection


The transformer is lightly insulated from earth
by mounting it on a concrete plinth. The tank
is connected to earth through a CT across
which an instantaneous earth fault relay is
connected. Earth fault current due to
insulation breakdown in any winding of the
transformer will flow through the tank and
single earth connection, thus energizing the
current transformer and operating the relay.
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Overfluxing Protection
Generator transformers
Grid transformers
Usually only a problem during run-up or shut down, but can
be caused by loss of load / load shedding etc.

Flux V
f
Effects of overfluxing :

Increase in magnetising current


Increase in winding temperature
Increase in noise and vibration
Overheating of laminations and metal parts

Protective relay responds to V/f ratio


Stage 1 - lower A.V.R.
Stage 2 - Trip field

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Overfluxing Basic Theory


V = kf

2
m

CAUSES
Low frequency
High voltage
Geomagnetic disturbances

Ie

EFFECTS
Tripping of differential element (Transient
overfluxing)
Damage to transformers (Prolonged overfluxing)
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Overfluxing Relay
Ex

VT

AVR

RL

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Inter-Turn Fault Protection

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Protection of
Generators
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Alternator
An alternator is an electromechanical device that
converts mechanical energy to electrical energy
in the form of alternating current.
Most alternators use a rotating magnetic field but
linear alternators are occasionally used. In
principle, any AC electrical generator can be
called an alternator, but usually the word refers
to small rotating machines driven by automotive
and other internal combustion engines.
Alternators in power stations driven by steam
turbines are called turbo-alternators.
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Alternator design

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Principle of operation
Alternators generate electricity using the same
principle as DC generators, namely, when the magnetic
field around a conductor changes, a current is induced
in the conductor. Typically, a rotating magnet, called
the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors
wound in coils on an iron core, called the stator. The
field cuts across the conductors, generating an induced
EMF(Electro-Magnetic Field), as the mechanical input
causes the rotor to turn.
The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in
the stator windings. Often there are three sets of stator
windings, physically offset so that the rotating
magnetic field produces a three phase current,
displaced by one-third of a period with respect to each
other.
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Alternating current (AC) flows

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Faults on Alternator
6-8% of total faults occurring in the power system
is due to the alternator faults. The following are
the major causes of fault on an alternator:
1. Stator Faults
2. Rotor Faults
3. Abnormal conditions
4. Faults in associated equipment
5. Faults in protective system
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Alternator Protection
The following types of protection can be provided to the
alternators:
- Differential Protection
- Stator Earth fault protection
- Negative phase sequence protection
- Protection against unbalanced loading
- Inter-turn fault protection
- Reverse power protection
- Field failure protection
- Rotor earth fault protection
- Temperature sensors in slots
- Over current relays in stator & rotor circuits
-Surge arrestors for surge overvoltage
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Differential Protection
CTs are provided at each end of the generator
winding which is to be protected.(as shown in
fig.)
When there is no fault the differential current (I1I2) through the relay is zero. So the relay will not
operate.
When the fault occurs the balance is disturbed
and differential current (I1-I2) flows through the
operating coil of the relay causing relay operation
and the trip circuit of the circuit breaker is closed.
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Differential Protection

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Differential Protection using balancing


resistor

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Modified Differential Protection


Generally protection is made for 80 to 85% of the
winding.
If any fault occurs near the neutral point then the
fault current is very small and relay does not
operate.
Modified differential protection scheme is used
to over come this.
Two phase elements (PC and PA) and balancing
resistor(BR) is connected in star and the earth
relay(ER) is connected between the star point and
neutral pilot wire.
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Modified Differential Protection

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Percentage Differential protection

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Percentage Differential protection


The disadvantage of the current differential
protection is that current transformers must
be identical, otherwise there will be current
flowing through the current relays for faults
outside of the protected zone or even under
normal conditions. Sensitivity to the
differential current due to the current
transformer errors is reduced by percentage
differential relays.
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Percentage Differential protection


In percentage differential relays, the current from
each current transformer flows through a
restraint coil. The purpose of the restraint coil is
to prevent undesired relay operation due to
current transformer errors. The operating coil
current | i1 - i2 | required for tripping is a
percentage of the average current through the
restraint coils. It is given by
where k is the proportion of the operating coil
current to the restraint coil current. For example
if k = 0.1, the operating coil current must be more
than 10% of the average restraint coil current in
order for the relay to operate.
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Restricted or balanced Earth fault Protection


In case of small size generators star point is
not available because it is made inside the
generator and grounded through some low
resistance then percentage differential relay
for ground fault is provided and is known as
restricted earth fault protection.
This scheme can be used only for ground
faults but not for phase faults.
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Restricted or Balanced Earth fault


Protection

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Merz Price protection


This type of protection provides a continuous check on
faults within the points, where the C.T.s are used. There
are two sets of C.T.s; each set is mounted on either end of
the stator phase. The secondaries of these current
transformer sets are connected in star and their ends are
connected together through pilot wires. The over current
inverse time relay is connected across the equipotential
points in the pilot wires, which will naturally be in center
of these wires. These relays are kept adjacent to the main
circuit breaker; by inserting balancing resistance in series
with the pilot wires to achieve equipotential point near
the main circuit breaker. If there is no fault in the
generator, same current will pass through the C.T.s at
both the ends and there will be no current spilling into
the relay.
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Merz Price protection

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Stator Winding Faults


The stator fault includes the following:
1. Phase-to-phase fault
2. Phase-to-earth fault
3. Stator inter-turn fault
The most common fault of the above is the phase-toearth fault. This fault is sensed and protected by the
earth fault protection.
From these phase faults and inter turn faults are less
common ,these usually develop into an earth faults.
This causes
Arcing to core
Damage of conductor and insulation
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Stator inter-turn fault Protection


Inter-turn fault on the same phase of the
stator winding cannot be detected by
transverse differential protection as it does
not disturb the balance between the currents
in neutral and high voltage CTs.
For protection against inter-turn faults the
following protection schemes are used.
(1)Cross differential protection.
(2)Residual voltage protection.
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Cross Differential Protection


Used in case of hydroelectric generator having
double winding armature.
As shown in figure relay
Rc provides protection
against phase to ground
and phase to phase fault.
The relay R1 provides
protection against interturn faults.
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Rotor Faults
Faults in the rotor circuit may be either earth
faults or between the turns of the field winding .
Field circuits are normally operated un-earthed.
So a single earth fault will not affect its operation.
But when a second fault arises then field winding
is short circuited and produce unsymmetrical
field system which leads to unbalanced forces on
rotor and results in excess pressure and bearing
and shaft distortion.
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Rotor Earth fault Protection


The rotor earth fault protection is done by dc
injection method or ac injection method.
The dc or ac voltage is impressed between the
field circuit and ground through a sensitive
overvoltage relay and current limiting resistor or
capacitor(in case of ac).
But dc source is generally used as over-current
relay in case of dc is more sensitive than ac.
A single earth fault in rotor circuit will complete
the path and the fault is sensed by the relay.
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Rotor Earth fault Protection

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Rotor Temperature alarm


It is provided in large
generators.
It indicates the level of
temperature but not the
actual
hot
spot
temperature.
The relay measures the
temperature
by
measuring the resistance
(as shown in fig)
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Loss of Excitation Protection


When the excitation of generator is lost it operate as a
Induction generator. It derives excitation from the
system and supply power at leading power factor.
Which may cause A fall in voltage & so loss of synchronism & system
instability.
Over heating of rotor due to induction current on it.
A protection having MHO characteristic
is used to detect loss of field.

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Overvoltages
Atmospheric surge voltages are caused by direct
lightening strokes to the aerial lines in the HV
system. These high voltage surges can reach to
the generator via transformer. To protect the
generator from severe voltage surges, surge
arrestors and surge capacitors may be used.
Switching surges may cause high transient
overvoltage if the restriking occurs across the
contacts of the circuit breakers. These surges can
also be eliminated by surge arrestors.
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Over Voltage Protection


Overvoltage protection is required in case of hydroelectric or gas turbine generators but not in case of
turbo generators.
Over voltage may be caused due to Transient over voltage in the transmission line due to
lightening.
Defective operation of the voltage regulator.
Sudden loss of load due to line tripping.
The protection is provided with an over voltage relay.
It is usually of induction pattern with an IDMT
Characteristic
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Reasons for Overvoltage


Overvoltage may occur in the vehicle electrical
system as the result of:
- Regulator failure
- Influences originating from the ignition
- Switching off of devices with a predominantly
inductive load
- Loose contacts
- Cable breaks
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Overload Protection
Overloading of the machine causes overheating
in the stator winding.
This can be prevented by using over-current relay
with time delay adjustment.
But overheating not only depends on overcurrent but also the failure of the cooling system
in the generator.
So temperature detector coils such as thermistors
or thermocouples are used at various points in
stator winding for indication of the temperature.
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Thermal Overloading
Continuous overloading may increase the
winding temperature to such extent that the
insulation will be damaged.
Temperature rise can also be caused by the
failure of cooling system. In large machined
the cooling system is utmost requirement.
Failure of cooling system will cause severe rise
in temperature of winding.
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Unbalanced loading
Continuous unbalance loads equal to the rated
current can cause dangerous heating of the
cylindrical rotor in turbo-generators.
Unbalanced loading on generator may be due to:
- unsymmetrical faults near the generating
station
- mal-operation of a circuit-breaker near the
generating station
Negative sequence protection senses the
unbalanced loading of alternator.
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Reverse Power Protection


When prime-mover fails machine starts
motoring and draws electrical power from the
system and this is known as inverted
operation .
The generator can be protected from inverted
operation by using single-element directional
power relay(reverse power relay) which
senses the direction of power flow.
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Negative Phase Sequence


Protection
Unbalance may cause due to single phase
fault or unbalanced loading and it gives rise to
negative sequence current .
This current in rotor causes rotor overheating
and damage to the rotor.
This can be protected by negative sequence
current filter with over current relay.

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Negative Phase Sequence


Protection

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Over current & Earth fault protection

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Field Winding Faults


Rotor faults include rotor inter turn faults and
conductor-to-earth faults. These are caused by
mechanical and temperature stresses. The
unbalanced loading on generator gives rise to
negative sequence currents, which gives rise to
negative sequence field & this negative sequence
field rotates in opposite direction of the main
field and gives rise to rotor heating. Rotor
temperature indicators are used for detection of
rotor overheating due to unbalanced loading of
generator.
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Cooling and noise


Due above all to the heat developed by the alternator when
converting mechanical power into electrical power, and also
due to the effects of heat from the engine compartment
(engine and exhaust system), considerable increases in the
alternator component temperature take place.
In the interests of functional reliability, service life, and
efficiency, it is imperative that this heat is dissipated
completely.
Depending upon alternator version, maximum permissible
ambient temperature is limited to 80...120C, and future
temperatures are expected to reach to 135C.
Cooling must guarantee that even under the hostile underhood conditions encountered in everyday operation,
component temperatures remain within the specified limits
("worst-case" consideration).
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Cooling without fresh-air intake


For normal operating conditions, through-flow
cooling is the most common cooling method applied
for automotive alternators.
Radial fans for one or both directions of rotation are
used.
Since both the fan and the alternator shaft must be
driven, the cooling-air throughput increases along
with the speed.
This ensures adequate cooling irrespective of
alternator loading.
In order to avoid the whistling noise which can occur
at specific speeds, the fan blades on some alternator
types are arranged asymmetrically.
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Cooling with fresh-air intake

When fresh air is used for cooling purposes, a special air-intake fitting is
provided on the intake side in place of the air-intake openings.
A hose is used to draw in cool, dust-free air from outside the engine
compartment.
It is particularly advisable to use the fresh-air intake method when enginecompartment temperatures exceed 80C and when a high-power
alternator is used. With the compact alternator, the fresh-air method can
be applied for cooling the rectifiers and the regulator
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Other Protections

Rotor temperature alarm


Stator heating protection
Loss of field protection
Over speed protection
Bearing insulation
Vibration protection
Bearing overheating protection
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THANKS
Presented By:

Er. H.S. Dhaliwal


dhaliwal361@gmail.com
098150-74800
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