Software Engineering

Software Specification Models

The Waterfall Model

Requirements
Definition
System and
Software design
Implementation
and Unit Testing
Integration and
System Testing
Operation and
Maintenance

Focus on models

Operational process

Information
System

Model

ANALYSIS PHASE

The development process starts with the analysis

phase. This phase results in a specification
document that shows what the software will do
without specifying how it will be done. The analysis
phase can use two separate approaches, depending
on whether the implementation phase is done using
a procedural programming language or an objectoriented language.

System modelling
System modelling helps the analyst
to understand the functionality of
the system and models are used to
communicate with customers

Stages of Design

Problem understanding

Identify one or more solutions

Evaluate possible solutions and choose the most

appropriate depending on the designer's experience and
available resources.

Describe solution abstractions

Look at the problem from different angles to discover the

design requirements.

Use graphical, formal or other descriptive notations to

describe the components of the design.

Repeat process for each identified abstraction

until the design is expressed in primitive terms.

Requirements Specification: Approaches

Natural language

Structured natural language

Design description language

Requirements specification language

Graphical notation

Formal specification

Procedure-oriented analysis
Procedure-oriented analysisalso called
structured
analysis
or
classical
analysisis the analysis process used if
the system implementation phase will
use a procedural language. The
specification in this case may use several
modeling tools, but we discuss only a
few of them here.

Data flow diagrams

Data flow diagrams show the movement of data in the
system.

Entity-relationship diagrams

Another modeling tool used during the analysis

phase is the entity-relationship diagram. This
diagram is also used in database design.

Entity-Relation Diagram
An entity
A relation between
entities
An entity or relation
attribute
An inheritance
relation

Example: CS 311 Project

Major

Client
1

Student

Project
1

CS311
Student

5 to 7

Member of

0:n
Person

0:n

0:n
Tech contact

Example: CS 305 Project

Major

Client
0:n

1
Student

Project

Person
0:n

1
CS305
Student

5 to 7

Member of

0:n
Tech contact

State diagrams

State diagrams provide another useful tool that

is normally used when the state of the entities
in the system will change in response to events.
As an example of a state diagram, we show the
operation of a one-passenger elevator. When a
floor button is pushed, the elevator moves in
the requested direction. It does not respond to
any other request until it reaches its
destination.

An example of a state diagram

Object-oriented analysis
Object-oriented analysis is the
analysis process used if the
implementation uses an objectoriented
language.
The
specification document in this case
may use several tools.

Use case diagrams

A use-case diagram gives the users view of a system: it
shows how users communicate with the system. A use-case
diagram uses four components: system, use cases, actors and
relationships. A system, shown by a rectangle, performs a
function.

Class diagrams

The next step in analysis is to create a class

diagram for the system. For example, we can
create a class diagram for our old-style
elevator. To do so, we need to think about the
entities involved in the system.

State chart
After the class diagram is finalized, a state
chart can be prepared for each class in the
class diagram. A state chart in objectoriented analysis plays the same role as
the state diagram in procedure-oriented
analysis.

Microwave oven state description

State
Waiting
Half power
Full power
Set time
Disabled
Enabled
Operation

Description
The oven is waiting for input. T he display shows the current time.
The oven power is set to 300 watts. The display shows Half
power.
The oven power is set to 600 watts. The display shows Full
power.
The cooking time is set to the users input value. The display
shows the cooking time selected and is updated as the time is set.
Oven operation is disabled for safety. Interior oven light is on.
Display shows Not ready.
Oven operation is enabled. Interior oven light is off. Display
shows Ready to cook.
Oven in operation. Interior oven light is on. Display shows the
timer countdown. On completion of cooking, the buzzer is
sounded for 5 seconds. Oven light is on. Display shows Cooking
complete while buzzer is sounding.

Microwave oven model

Full
power

Full power
do: set power
= 600
Timer

Waiting
do: display
time

Half
power

Number
Full
power
Half
power

Door
closed

Timer
Door
open
Half power
do: set power
= 300

Operation
do: operate
oven

Set time
do: get number
exit: set time

Door
closed
Disabled
do: display
'Waiting'

Cancel
Start
Enabled
do: display
'Ready'

Door
open

Waiting
do: display
time

Microwave oven operation

Operation
Checking
do: check
status
Turntable
fault

Time
Cook
do: run
generator

OK

Emitter
fault

Timeout
Done
do: buzzer on
for 5 secs.

Alarm
do: display
event

Door
open
Disabled

Cancel
Waiting

Data Flow Diagrams

DFDs model the system from a functional

perspective
Tracking and documenting how the data
associated with a process is helpful to
develop an overall understanding of the
system
Data flow diagrams may also be used in
showing the data exchange between a
system and other systems in its environment

4 Main Elements

external entity - people or organisations that

send data into the system or receive data from
the system
process - models what happens to the data i.e.
transforms incoming data into outgoing data
data store - represents permanent data that is
used by the system
data flow - models the actual flow of the data
between the other elements

SYMBOLS USED IN A DFD

PROCESS

DATA FLOW

Actions performed on data

so that they are
transformed, stored or
distributed.

E.g. Result of a query to a

database, contents of a printed
report : data that moves
together to common
destinations

SYMBOLS USED IN A DFD

DATA STORE
A physical location to hold
data e.g. a file folder or
notebook etc.

SOURCE/SINK

Origin and/or destination

of the data. Often referred
to as external entities as
they are outside the
system.

Example: University Admissions

Rejection
Application
Completed
form
Receive application
Evaluate
application
Applicant
Offer

Example: University Admissions

Assemble Application Stage
Acknowledgment
Application
form

Receive

Applicant

Completed
application

Acknowledgment
AND

Initiate
evaluation

Evaluation
request

AND

Supporting
information
Pending
database

Applicant
database

Example: University Admissions

Process Completed Application Stage
Rejection
Evaluation
request

Evaluation

Acceptance

Special
request
Applicant
database

Financial
aid

Offer

DFD Shapes from Visio

Visio 2000

Visio 5.x
From Flow Chart /
Data Flow Diagram

From Software Diagram /

Gane-Sarson DFD

From Flow Chart /

Data Flow Diagram

ID #

Process
Process

Process

Data Store
Data Store

Data Store

ID
#

External Entity

External
Entity

External
Entity

Reading a DFD

Levelled DFDs

Even a small system could have many

processes and data flows and DFD could
be large and messy
use levelled DFDs - view system at different
levels of detail
one overview and many progressively greater
detailed views

Relationship Among DFD levels

Level 0 - Context Diagram

models system as one process box which

represents scope of the system
identifies external entities and related inputs
and outputs
Additional notation - system box

External
entity

Data flow out

Data flow in

System box

Level 1 - overview diagram

gives overview of full system

identifies major processes and data flows between
them
identifies data stores that are used by the major
processes
boundary of level 1 is the context diagram

Level 2 Diagrams

level 1 process is expanded into more detail

each process in level 1 is decomposed to show its
constituent processes
Level 2 diagrams may not be needed for all level
1 processes
Correctly numbering each process helps the user
understand where the process fits into the overall
system

Numbering

On level 1 processes are numbered

1,2,3
On level 2 processes are numbered x.1,
x.2, x.3 where x is the number of the
parent level 1 process
Number is used to uniquely identify
process not to represent any order of
processing
Data store numbers usually D1, D2, D3...

Labelling

Process label - short description of what

the process does, e.G. Price order
Data flow label - noun representing the
data flowing through it e.G. Customer
payment
Data store label - describes the type of
data stored
Make labels as meaningful as possible

Context Diagram
Staff Assignment
Campaign
Manager

Payment

Accountant
Campaign

Staff

Client
Staff Grade
Budget

Agate
Campaign
Management
System

Advert Completion

Client Contact

Advert
Campaign
Staff

Concept Note
Concept Note

Staff

Staff
Contact

Top Level Diagram (Level 0)

Client

Staff

Clients
1.
Record
Clients

Campaign
Manager

Staff

Client

4.
Maintain
Staff

Staff Grade

Staff Members

Payment

Staff

Campaign

Staff
Budget
Staff Assignment

Accountant

2.
Plan and
Manage
Campaigns

Campaigns
Campaign
Contact
Cost + Completion Date

Concept Note

5.
Manage
Adverts

Staff
Contact
Client Contact

Adverts

Advert
Campaign
Staff

Advert Completion

3.
Prepare
Adverts

Advert

6.
Browse
Concept
Notes

Concept Note
Notes

Concept
Note

Concept
Note

Staff

Level 1 Diagram
Staff Members
Client Contact

Staff
5.1
Set Client
Contact
Contact

Adverts

Advert Completion

5.2
Set Advert
Completed

Completion Date

Example

Alexsoft shop buys software from various suppliers

and sells it to the public
The shop stocks popular software packages and
orders as required
The shop sells monthly about 300 packages
The shop need to be computerized

System requirements

Business functions, account payable, accounts

receivable and inventory
The system is batch or online
One computer with appropriate configuration

DFD
Package data
Package details

order

Process
order

Customer
invoice

Credit status

Customer data

DFD (2)
Package data
Package details

order
Customer
invoice

Assemble
order

Verify order
is valid
details

Credit status

Customer data

DFD (3)

Verify order
is valid

Details of package to
be ordered

Pending orders

Batched order

Place order at
supplier

Address or telephone

Software
Supplier

DFD (4)
Package data
Package details

order
Customer
invoice

Assemble
order

payment

Payment to
invoice

Verify order
is valid
details

Credit status

Account
receivable

Customer data

Level 0 Context diagram

CUSTOMER

KITCHEN

0
Food
ordering
system

RESTAURANT
MANAGER

Level 0 Context diagram

CUSTOMER

KITCHEN

0
Customer Order

Food
ordering
system

Receipt
Management
Reports

RESTAURANT
MANAGER

Food Order

1.0
Receive and
transform
Customer Food
Order

3.0

2.0

Update
Goods
Sold file

Update
Inventory
file

4.0
Produce
Management
Reports

CUSTOMER

KITCHEN

1.0
Customer Order

Receive and
transform
Customer Food
Order

Food Order

Receipt

D1

Goods Sold
File

3.0

2.0

Update
Goods
Sold file

Update
Inventory
file

D2 Inventory File

4.0
Produce
Management
Reports

Management
Reports

RESTAURANT
MANAGER

CUSTOMER

KITCHEN

1.0
Customer Order

Receipt

3.0

Food Order

Goods

Inventory

Sold

Data

2.0
Update
Inventory
file

Update
Goods
Sold file

Goods
Sold Data

D1

Receive and
transform
Customer Food
Order

Goods Sold
File

Daily Goods Sold

Amount

Inventory Data

D2 Inventory File

4.0
Produce
Management
Reports

Daily Inventory Depletion Amounts

Management
Reports

RESTAURANT
MANAGER

DFD Example : Payroll

Creating Data Flow Diagrams

Lemonade Stand Example

Creating Data Flow Diagrams

Example
The operations of a simple
lemonade stand will be used
to demonstrate the creation
of dataflow diagrams.

Steps:
1. Create a list of activities

Old way: no Use-Case Diagram

New way: use Use-Case Diagram

2. Construct Context Level DFD

(identifies sources and sink)

3. Construct Level 0 DFD

(identifies manageable sub processes )
4. Construct Level 1- n DFD
(identifies actual data flows and data stores )

Creating Data Flow Diagrams

Example

1. Create a list of activities

Think through the activities

that take place at a lemonade
stand.
Customer Order
Serve Product
Collect Payment
Produce Product
Store Product

Creating Data Flow Diagrams

Example

1. Create a list of activities

Also think of the additional

activities needed to support
the basic activities.
Customer Order
Serve Product
Collect Payment
Produce Product
Store Product
Order Raw Materials
Pay for Raw Materials
Pay for Labor

Creating Data Flow Diagrams

Example

1. Create a list of activities

Group these activities in

some logical fashion,
possibly functional areas.
Customer Order
Serve Product
Collect Payment
Produce Product
Store Product
Order Raw Materials
Pay for Raw Materials
Pay for Labor

Creating Data Flow Diagrams

Example

2. Construct Context Level DFD

(identifies sources and sink)

Create a context level

diagram identifying the
sources and sinks (users).

Context Level DFD

Order

Customer Order
Serve Product
Collect Payment
Produce Product
Store Product

Order Raw Materials

Pay for Raw Materials
Pay for Labor

CUSTOMER

Sales Forecast
0.0
Lemonade Production Schedule EMPLOYEE
Pay
System

Product Served
Payment
Received Goods
Payment

VENDOR

Time Worked
Purchase Order

Creating Data Flow Diagrams

Example
Create a level 0 diagram
identifying the logical
subsystems that may exist.

3. Construct Level 0 DFD

(identifies manageable sub processes )

Level 0 DFD
1.0
Sale

Customer Order
Serve Product
Collect Payment

Product Ordered
Payment
CUSTOMER

Produce Product
Store Product

Order Raw Materials

Pay for Raw Materials
Pay for Labor

Sales Forecast

Customer Order

Product Served
Received Goods

VENDOR

Purchase Order

Production
Schedule

2.0
Production

EMPLOYEE

Inventory
3.0
Procurement

Payment

Order
Decisions
Pay

4.0
Payroll

Time Worked

Creating Data Flow Diagrams

Example
Create a level 1
decomposing the processes
in level 0 and identifying
data stores.

4. Construct Level 1- n DFD

(identifies actual data flows and data stores )

Level 1 DFD
CUSTOMER

Customer Order

Customer Order
Serve Product
Collect Payment
Produce Product
Store Product

Order Raw Materials

Pay for Raw Materials
Pay for Labor

ORDER
1.1
Record
Order

Severed Order

Payment
1.2
Receive
Payment

PAYMENT

Request for Forecast

1.3
Produce
Sales
Forecast

Sales Forecast

Creating Data Flow Diagrams

Example
Create a level 1
decomposing the processes
in level 0 and identifying
data stores.

4. Construct Level 1 (continued)

Level 1 DFD
Product Order
ORDER

Customer Order
Serve Product
Collect Payment
Produce Product
Store Product

Order Raw Materials

Pay for Raw Materials
Pay for Labor

2.1
Serve
Product

Quantity Severed
RAW
MATERIALS

Production
Schedule
2.2
Produce
Product

Production Data
2.3
Store
Product

Quantity Used
INVENTORTY

Quantity Produced &

Location Stored

Creating Data Flow Diagrams

Example
Create a level 1
decomposing the processes
in level 0 and identifying
data stores.
Customer Order
Serve Product
Collect Payment

4. Construct Level 1 (continued)

Level 1 DFD
Order Decision
3.1
Produce
Purchase
Order

Quantity On-Hand
Quantity
Received

Received
Goods
3.2
Receive
Items

Produce Product
Store Product

Order Raw Materials

Pay for Raw Materials

PURCHASE
ORDER

Payment Approval
3.3
Pay
Vendor

Pay for Labor

Payment

RAW
MATERIALS

RECEIVED
ITEMS

VENDOR

Creating Data Flow Diagrams

Example
Create a level 1
decomposing the processes
in level 0 and identifying
data stores.
Customer Order
Serve Product
Collect Payment

4. Construct Level 1 (continued)

Level 1 DFD

Time Worked
4.1
Record
Time
Worked

TIME CARDS

Employee ID
EMPLOYEE

Payroll Request
4.2
Calculate
Payroll

Produce Product
Store Product

Unpaid time cards

PAYROLL

Payment Approval

Order Raw Materials

Pay for Raw Materials

4.3
Pay
Employe
e

Pay for Labor

Payment

PAYMENTS

Process Decomposition

0.0
Lemonade
System

Context Level

1.0
Sale

1.1
Record
Order

1.2
Receive
Payment

2.0
Production

2.1
Serve
Product

2.2
Produce
Product

2.3
Store
Product

3.0
Procurement

3.1
Produce
Purchase
Order

3.2
Receive
Items

3.3
Pay
Vendor

4.0
Payroll

4.1
Record
Time
Worked

4.2
Calculate
Payroll

4.3
Pay
Employe
e

Level 0

Level 1

DFD Example: Bus Garage Repairs

Buses come to a garage for repairs.

A mechanic and helper perform the repair, record
the reason for the repair and record the total cost of
all parts used on a Shop Repair Order.
Information on labor, parts and repair outcome is
used for billing by the Accounting Department,
parts monitoring by the inventory management
computer system and a performance review by the
supervisor.

DFD Example: Bus Garage Repairs

(contd)

External Entities: Bus, Mechanic, Helper,

Supervisor, Inventory Management System,
Accounting Department, etc.
Key process (the system): performing repairs and
storing information related to repairs
Processes:

Record Bus ID and reason for repair

Determine parts needed
Perform repair
Calculate parts extended and total cost
Record labor hours, cost

DFD Example: Bus Garage Repairs

(contd)

Data stores:

Personnel file
Repairs file
Bus master list
Parts list

Data flows:

Repair order
Bus record
Parts record
Employee timecard
Invoices

Bus Garage Context Diagram

Bus
Fixed
mechanical
problems

Mechanical
problem
to be repaired

Helper

Labor

Labor

Mechanic

Bus
Repair
Process
System
Labor,
parts cost
details

Repair
summary
List of
parts used

Supervisor

Inventory
Managemen
t System

Accountin
g

CSUB Burgers Order Processing System

Draw the CSUB Burgers context diagram

System
Order processing system

External entities
Kitchen
Restaurant
Customer

Processes

Customer order
Receipt
Food order
Management report

Joes builders suppliers has a shop and a yard. He has a

stock list on the wall of his shop, complete with prices.
When a builder wants to buy supplies, he goes into the
shop and picks the stock items from the list. He writes
his order on a duplicate docket and pays Joe, who stamps
the docket as paid. The builder takes the duplicate docket
and he goes to the yard and hands it to the yard foreman.
The yard foreman gets the ordered items from the yard
and gives them to the builder. The builder signs the
duplicate docket and leaves one copy with the foreman
and takes one copy as a receipt. Every week, Joe looks
around the yard to see if any of his stock is running low.
He rings up the relevant suppliers and reorders stock.
He records the order in his order book, which is kept in
the yard. The yard foreman takes delivery of the new
stock and checks it against what has been ordered. He
pays for it on delivery and staples the receipt into the
order book. At the end of every month, Joe goes through
all the dockets and the order book and produces a
financial report for the shareholders.

Context diagram
Shareholders

financial
report

Supply needs

Docket &
Payment

Joe's
Yard

Joe

Customer
Signed docket
Supply order
& payment

Supply invoice

Supplier

Level-1 DFD processes

Joes builders suppliers has a shop and a yard. His system is

entirely manual. He has a stock list on the wall of his
shop, complete with prices. When a builder wants to buy
supplies, he goes into the shop and picks the stock items
from the list. He writes his order on a duplicate docket
and pays Joe, who stamps the docket as paid. The builder
takes the duplicate docket and he goes to the yard and
hands it to the yard foreman. The yard foreman gets the
ordered items from the yard and gives them to the
builder. The builder signs the duplicate docket and
leaves one copy with the foreman and takes one copy as a
receipt. Every week, Joe looks around the yard to see if
any of his stock is running low. He rings up the relevant
suppliers and reorders stock. He records the order in his
order book, which is kept in the yard. The yard foreman
takes delivery of the new stock and checks it against what
has been ordered. He pays for it on delivery and staples
the receipt into the order book. At the end of every
month, Joe goes through all the dockets and the order

Level 1 current physical

20
Buy
supplies

Money
Payment

Supplier
receipt

22
Payment

Docket &
Payment

Payment
Restock

Docket

supplies
Supplier

Customer

M1

completed
docket copy

supplies
Supply order

Docket

completed
docket copy

required stock

stock

Signed docket
12
builder
signature
11
Take
to
yard

Order
book

M3

Supply order
get
items

required stock
completed
docket copy

Supplier
receipt

Joe
Supply needs

21
Reorder
supplies

Signed docket

Signed docket

Joe's Office
Produce
financial
report

Foreman

financial
report
*

Shareholders

Buy Supplies
20 Buy supplies
Customer

M1

Docket

20.1
Docket

Docket

Writes
Order
*

Payment

Docket

20.3
Stamp
Docket(signature)

20.2
Payment

Pays
Joe
*

*
Money

Get Items
12 get items
12.2
Foreman

Signed docket
12.1

Signed docket

Get builder
signature
*

Give items
to customer

Customer
*

required stock

builder
signature

completed
docket copy

completed
docket copy

stock
12.3
Give
copy
as receipt

Reorder supplies
21 Reorder supplies

21.1
Joe

Supply needs

Reorder
from
yard

Supply needs
21.2
Supply order

Record
order
*

M3

Order
book

Restock
22 Restock
M3

Order
book
Supply order

22.1

stock
supplies

Take
delivery
*
supplies

Supply order
Money
Payment

22.2

Supplier
receipt

Pay
supplier
*

Payment

Supplier