OVERVIEW OF

MOUTH
STOMACH
SMALL INTESTINE

CARBOHYDRATES

PROTEINS AND FATTY ACIDS

Glucose
Monosaccharides
Amino acids

FATS AND OILS

Glycerol

Some reactions occur in the cytosol

of cells and some in cellular
mitochondria
Small molecules from digestion are
further oxidized during this stage
Primary products include twocarbon acetyl units and the reduced
coenzyme NADH.

Occurs inside the mitochondria

Acetyl groups are oxidized to
produce CO2 and energy
CO2 that is exhaled as part of
the breathing process comes
primarily from this stage

Occurs inside the mitochondria

NADH and FADH2 supply the fuel
needed for the production of ATP
molecules, the primary energy
carriers in metabolic pathways
Molecular O2, inhaled in breathing,
is converted to H2O in this stage

Common Metabolic Pathway

Sum total of the biochemical reactions of

the citric acid cycle, the electron transport
chain, and oxidative phosphorylation

The series of biochemical reactions in

which the acetyl portion of acetyl CoA
is oxidized to carbon dioxide and the
reduced coenzyme FADH2 and NADH
are produced.

Named after its discoverer by Hans Adolf

Krebs, and as the tricarboxylic acid cycle,
in reference to the three carboxylate
groups present in citric acid cycle.

Oxidation produces NADH or FADH2

Decarboxylation carbon chain is
shortened by the removal of a carbon
atom as a CO2 molecule

Acetyl CoA, which carries the

two-carbon degration product
of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins, enter the cycle by
combining with the four-carbon
keto dicarboxylate species
oxaloacetate.

This results in the transfer of the

acetyl group from coenzyme A to
oxaloacetate, producing the C6 citrate
species and free coenzyme A.

Citrate is converted to its less

symmetrical isomer isocitrate in an
isomeration process that involves a
dehydration followed by hydration,
both catalyzed by the enzyme
aconitase. The net result of these
reaction is that the OH group from
citrate is moved to a different carbon
atom.

This step involves oxidation-reduction

and decarboxylation. The reactants are
a NAD+ molecules and isocitrate. The
reaction, catalyzed by isocitrate
dehydrogenase, is complex.

Isocitrate is oxidized to a ketone

OXALOSUCCINATE

One hydrogen and two electrons are

transferred to NAD+ to form NADH; the
remaining hydrogen ion (H+) is
released.

The oxalosuccinate remains bound to

enzyme and undergoes
decarboxylation (loses CO2), which
produces the C5 -ketoglutarate (a keto
dicarboxylate species).

This second redox reaction of

the cycle involves one molecule
each of NAD+ , CoA-SH, and ketoglutarate. The catalyst is a
three-enzyme system called
the -ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase complex.

Two reactant molecules are involved

in this step a Pi (HPO4 2-) and a GDP
(similar to ADP). The entire reaction
is catalyzed by the enzyme succinylCoA synthetase. For the purposes of
understanding the structural
changes that occur, the reaction can
be considered to occur in two steps.

In the first step, succinyl CoA is

converted to succinyl phosphate ( a
high-energy phosphate compound);
CoA-SH is a product of this change.
The phosphoryl group present in
succinyl phosphate is then
transferred to GDP; the products of
this change are GTP and succinate.

This is the third redox reaction of the

cycle. The enzyme involved is
succinate dehydrogenase, and the
oxidizing agent is FAD rather than
NAD+. Two hydrogen atoms are
removed from the succinate to produce
fumarate, a C4 species with a trans
double bond. FAD is reduced to FADH2
in the process.

The enzyme fumarase

catalyzes the addition of
water to the double bond of
fumarate. The enzyme is
stereospecific, so only the L
isomer of the product malate
is produced.

In the fourth oxidation-reduction reaction

of the cycle, a molecule of NAD+ reacts
with malate, picking up two hydrogen
atoms with their associated energy to
form NADH + H+. The needed enzyme is
malate dehydrogenase. The product of
this reaction is regenerated oxaloacetate,
which can combine with another molecule
of acetyl CoA, and the cycle begin again.

TO HELP BETTER UNDERSTAND

THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE
THE VIDEO WILL EXPLAIN STEP BY STEP THE CITRIC CID CYCLE.
IT WILL EXPLAIN EVERY REACTION THAT TOOK PLACE IN EVERY
STEP.