About Cement

Cement Chemistry
Cement is hydraulic material which
develops strength when it reacts with water.
It is inorganic material which consists of
oxides of calcium,silicon,iron,aluminum.
Phases in Cement

C3 S (Alite)

C2 S (Belite)

C3 A

C4 AF

C - CaO , S - SiO2 , A - Al2O3 , F - Fe2O3

About Cement

Cement Reaction With Water

Portland cement when mixed with water undergoes the

process of Setting & Hardening

The initial stiffening or setting of PC pastes appears to be

the result of the rapid hydration taking place on the
surface of the cement particles. This rapid initial setting
is controlled by the presence of calcium sulfate and for
this reason a small proportion of gypsum is interground
with cement clinker to control the rate of initial setting.
Following this the principal reaction is the formation of
single calcium silicate hydrate(C-S-H) from the various
anhydrous calcium silicates present in the cement
particles.

About Cement

Cement Reaction With Water

C3S + 3H --> C-S-H + 2C-H

rigid gel

C2S + 2H --> C-S-H + C-H

rigid gel

C3A , C4AF have less hydraulic properties but useful for

liquid
formation in kiln.

C - CaO , H - H2O

About Cement

Types of Cement
OPC - Ordinary Portland Cement

PPC - Pozzolona Portland Cement

Clinker + Gypsum
33 grade , 44 grade ,53 grade
33 grade :- develop strength upto 330kg/cm2 after 28
days

Clinker + Flyash + Gypsum

PSC - Slag Cement

Clinker + Slag + Gypsum

Process Overview
Additives i.e.
Iron ore or
Clay

Mining &
Raw Mill
Crushing Crushed Limestone Grinding

Packaging

Blaine 300-350 m2/kg

OR
(45) Res. <16%
Cement
Final

Fine Raw Meal

(120)Res. < 3%

Lt. wt 1200-1350
Clinker

Grinding
1) OPC
2) PPC
3) Slag
Cement

1) Gypsum
2) Flyash
3)
Pozzolona
4) Slag

Raw Meal
Homogenization

Pyro Processing
Clinkerization

Coal Ash
From Coal Fired

Process Overview

Grinding

Limestone + Additives ------------> Clinker

Heating 1500oC
in Kiln

Grinding

Clinker + Gypsum + Additives ------------> Cement

Process Overview

Mining
First step in Cement Production
Drilling is used to drill deep holes in the
soil
Blasting is done with the help of drilled
holes & explosives
Blasted Limestone is excavated with
excavator
Unearthed Limestone is transported to
Crusher

Process Overview

Raw Meal Preparation

Crushing Limestone from Mines

Limestone from Quarry requires coarse size reduction as

it is in the form of big boulders.
Crushers are used in two or three steps for coarse size
reduction.
Types :Jaw Crusher , Hammer Crusher , Impact crusher.

Pre-homogenization of Limestone

Limestone ,excavated from different benches, has

different chemical composition.Hence homogenization is
needed.
In this Crushed limestone is stacked onto stock pile in
such a way that inherent CaCO3 Inconsistency is evened
out.

Process Overview

Raw Meal Grinding

Pre-homogenized Raw Meal in addition with
with additives ,e.g. sandstone, iron
oxide,clay etc., is ground in Raw Mill.

Types : VRM , Closed Circuit Ball Mill

Hot air from Preheater is used for removing
moisture in Raw Meal.

Homogenization of powdered Raw Meal is

done in blending silo so that Chemical
properties of Raw Meal gets equalized w.r.t.
time.

Process Overview

Pyroprocessing
The homogenous raw meal is preheated in
Preheater.
The material is then calcined upto 90% in Calciner.
The Calicined raw meal is sintered into clinker in a
rotary Kiln.
Fuel (Coal , Oil) is fired into Kiln to sinter the raw
meal.
Red hot Clinker is cooled in cooler.
The cooled clinker is crushed in Clinker breaker &
stored in silo or Gantry for finished grinding.

Process Overview

Finished Grinding

Crushed Clinker is mixed with gypsum & fed

into Cement Mill for fine size reduction.

Gypsum is added to control setting time of cement.

Circuit Types : Open circuit Ball Mill , Closed circuit
Ball Mill , Roller Press with Ball Mill,VRM with Ball
Mill

Depending on final Cement requirements

Flyash or Slag is added along with Crushed
Clinker.

Process Overview

Different Type of Process

Wet Process

Semi Wet Process / Semi Dry Process

Raw feed fed to kiln contains 30-40% water by weight

Raw feed, prepared by either the wet or dry methods
according to the nature of the raw materials is formed
into pellets or modules, which are fed into the kiln by
way of a grate preheater in which the moving bed of
nodulized material is dried and brought upto calcining
temperature by heat from kiln .

Dry Process

Raw Material fed to kiln contains 2-4% water by weight

Size Reduction in Cement Industry

Raw Meal Crushing

Jaw,Impact,Hammer,Gyratory Crusher
Raw Meal Grinding
Ball Mill , Vertical Roller Mill (VRM)
Clinker Crushing
Hammer Crusher
Final Grinding
Ball Mill , VRM , Roller Press, Hybrid

Grinding in Cement Industry

Objectives
Size Reduction

Drying

Reduces feed size

increases reactivity
Grinding Efficiency improves due to moisture
removal
Better thermal efficiency in kiln

Blending

Raw material with different property get mixed

Achieves better homogeneity

Grinding in Cement Industry

Locations in Cement process

Size reduction and drying of Raw meal.

Size reduction and drying of Coal.

VRM , Ball Mill

VRM , Ball Mill , E-Mill

Size reduction of cement clinker.

VRM , Ball Mill , Roller Press

Grinding in Cement Industry

Different Type of Grinding Equipment

Ball Mill

Vertical Roller Mill (VRM)

Roller Press

Dry Grinding
Open Circuit

Mill Product is Fed to Air Separator & Coarse Material is

fed back to mill
Material from Mill to Separator is conveyed by Elevator

Air-Swept Operation

Mill Product is Final Product

Closed Circuit

Ball Mill

Material from Mill to Separator is conveyed by Air

Wet Grinding
Open Circuit
Closed Circuit

Ball Mill

Operational philosophy

Grinding By Impact

Primary size reduction process in first chamber of mill.

Large diameter grinding media climbs along the mill
lining due to centrifugal force.
At the point when the weight of ball exceeds
centrifugal force the ball falls down.
The impact of the falling grinding charge with Mill
lining causes particles entrapped between the charge
& lining to fracture and undergo size reduction

Ball Mill

Operational philosophy

Grinding By Attrition

Grinding action in the Fine grinding

compartment is generally by abrasion &
shearing action
Small particles , which are in an agglomerated
form before grinding, are sheared off from the
surface due to rubbing between multiple large
sized aggregates and/or the grinding media.

Air Separator

Operational philosophy
The performance of closed circuit mill very
much depends upon performance of
separator that is used. There are two broad
categories of separator. These are

Conventional Type Of separator (mechanical air

separator)
High Efficiency Separator (static separator)

Both types use Air for separation in which

centrifugal force of circulating air separates
fines from coarse.

Mechanical Air Separator

Separation
In this type of Separator Due to drag force
of air separation of fines from coarse takes
place. Fresh feed is fed to distributing plate,
which disperse feed into air stream flowing
up. Fines get entrained in air stream &
coarse hits the wall of separator. After
hitting the wall coarse gets collected into
cone.

Mechanical Air Separator

Fineness Control
Circulating Air Volume in Separator is only MV that can
control Fineness. The less is the volume more is
Fineness. Auxiliary fan in separator can very the
circulating air volume.
As Auxiliary fan rpm increases circulating air volume
decreases which intern decrease material dragged by
air to fines of separator. Thus Fineness can be
increased.
Sp. Power requirement for such separator is around 6
kWh/ton.

Mechanical Air Separator

Limitations
High Fineness of product is difficult or can be
achieved with high circulating load.
Mismatches between sizes of mill & separator
It is not possible to have selective size gradation (330 micron for cement.)
In case of conventional separator 50% of fine (below
30 micron) if returned to mill.

High efficiency Static Air Separator

Separation

The Mill discharge material is fed on dispersion plate. The

material then cascade down to separating (classifying
zone) where tangential inlet air suspends feed particles
against the opposing centrifugal force of the rotor.
Intense shearing force breaks apart the particle
agglomerates for highly efficient classification.
Product size particles, controlled by rotor speed, pass
through the rotor blades to the cyclone. Rejects fall down
to the collection hopper & fed back to mill. An externally
located fan sucks the fine. Air is again recirculated to the
separator. Small amount of recirculated air is vented off.

High efficiency Static Air Separator

Fineness Control
Fineness can be controlled by rotor speed & air
volume in separator.
By increasing rotor speed feed material requires
more turn & energy against centrifugal force to get
through rotor blades. Due to this fineness of product
increases.
Also by decreasing air volume in separator increases
fineness of product.

Ball Mill - Dry Grinding Close Circuit

Process
Fresh feed is fed to ball mill with
Separator rejects.
Ball mill product goes to Separator for
separation
Rejects is fed back to mill
Rejects

Fresh Feed
TPH

Ball Mill
Accum
Mill kW

Recirculating Load

Mill Product
TPH

Separator
RPM
Damper

Final Product
TPH
Blaine/Residue

Ball Mill - Dry Grinding Close Circuit

MV-CV relation

Ball Mill - Dry Grinding Close Circuit

Abnormal Conditions & there control

Sudden increase in Mill accumulation

Cause :
Feed Size increase
Moisture increase in feed
Hardness of Feed increase
Control:
Cut the fresh Feed

Ball Mill - Dry Grinding Close Circuit

Abnormal Conditions & there control

Separator Resonance

Cause :
Mechanical structure natural frequency
matches with Separator at certain RPM
Control:
Prohibit RPM for resonance range

Ball Mill - Dry Grinding Close Circuit

Malfunctions

Decrease in Mill Output

Cause :
Feed hardness & size
Worn out Mill charge
Blocked diaphragm
High moisture content
Fractured diaphragm

Ball Mill - Dry Grinding Close Circuit

Malfunctions

Product too coarse

Cause :
Increased feed hardness
Grinding media too large
Too few grinding media
Diaphragm slots worn out
Mill feed overloading
Malfunction of separator
Mill fan damper jammed

Ball Mill - Dry Grinding Close Circuit

Malfunctions

Mill inlet pressure low

Cause :
Low mill draught
Excessive wet feed

Ball Mill v/s VRM/Roller press

Ball Mill VRM/Roller Press
Grinding-Impact/AttritionGrinding-Compressive
stress
Lower fines

Greater Fines

Higher kWh/ton

Lower kWh/ton

Non flexible

Flexible for different products

Easy to maintain Requires High skills

Vertical Roller Mill

Operational philosophy

Grinding by Compressive force

Feed is ground between horizontal grinding
table & two or more rollers , which are pressed
against the grinding table under high pressure

VRM - Typical Raw Mill

Process
VRM is widely used for Raw Meal Grinding.
Raw Material is fed to table . Raw Material
get grounded between table & roller.
Hot air with re-circulation air enters from
bottom of the mill through perforated
plates.
Air carries ground material to separator inlet
which is integral part of Mill.
Separator reject falls back to grinding table
& fines are carried by air to cyclone.

Vertical Roller Mill

Major Operating Parameters

Mill Vibration
: Health of Mill
Bed Layer Thickness
: Stability
Mill DP
: Stability
Fan Power
: Air Volume
Mill Outlet Temp.
: Feed Moisture Drying
Residue/Blaine
: Quality

Vertical Roller Mill

MV - CV relation

Vertical Roller Mill

Abnormal Conditions & there control

Vibration High

Cause :
Imbalance between Material DP & Air DP
Control:
Cut/Increase Feed
Increase Water Spray

Vertical Roller Mill

Abnormal Conditions & there control

High increase rate in DP or High DP

Cause :
Inlet Material Property changes e.g.
Moisture , Grindability
High Feed rate
Control:
Cut Feed

Roller Press

Operational philosophy

Grinding by Compressive force

Feed is ground between horizontal grinding roll ,
one of which is pressed against the another
immovable roll under high pressure

Roller Press

Process
Roller Press is widely used for Finished Grinding
in hybrid mode of operation.
Raw Material is fed to overhead silo . Material
bed is always maintained above roller press.
Ground material is fed to separator by elevator.
Separator reject is fed to roller press & fines are
carried by air to cyclone.
Sometime ground material doesnt goto
Separator. Only divider divides ground product
,one part of which goes back to Roller Press.

Roller Press

Major Operating Parameters

Roller Gap - Health of mill
Back Pressure - Good grinding
Over head Silo level - Choke feed
Residue/Blaine
Returns
Mill Power

Modes of Operation

Roller press & Ball mill for finished grinding can

work in following modes
One Pass Mode
Pre-grinding Mode
Hybrid Mode

Clinkerization Overview

Main Aim of this section is to produce Clinker

from Raw meal in energy efficient manner

Kiln Operation can be in following mode

Wet Process : Kiln Feed Water 30 - 40%
Semi Dry/Wet process
Dry Process : Kiln Feed Water 2 - 3%

Clinkerization Overview

The choice of the process to be used depends

upon a complex combination of different factors
This includes:
The nature of the raw materials.
The thermal efficiency of the different
processes and their variations
fuel and other energy prices

Clinkerization Overview

Three sections in Dry Process

Preheater :

Kiln :

Preheat the Kiln feed Using Waste Heat Gas

Calcination Using Waste heat gas & Coal in Calciner
Clinker Formation from Calcined Kiln feed using Coal
fuel.

Cooler :

Heat Recovery from Hot Clinker

Cooling Clinker rapidly to form reactive clinker

Reactions - Heating
30 - 300

Removal of structural water and OH group from clay minerals

Clacination

above 800

Evaporation of Water

400 - 900

Clinkerization Overview

Formation of C2S , intermediate product , aluminate , ferrite

above 1250

Formation of liquid phase (aluminate & Ferrite melt)

Crystalization of Alite ,Belite I.e Completion of phase
formation

Clinkerization Overview

Reactions - Cooling
1300 - 1240

Crystalization of liquid phase into mainly aluminate &

ferrite

Clinkerization Overview

Raw Meal

Preheater

30oC to 900oC
Removal
of
Water

Raw Meal
Preheating

Calcination
Oxide Formation

100oC to 300oC

30oC to 100oC

CaCO3 -> CaO + CO2

(CaO)2.SiO2 + CaO -> (CaO)3.SiO2

Crystalization

Cooling
1350oC to
1250oC

Kiln
Clinker

Liquid &
Phase
formation

CaO
SiO2
Fe2O3
Al2O3

above 800oC

Belite formation
Above 1200 C

(CaO)3.(Al2O3) ----- C3A

(CaO)4.(Al2O3).Fe2O3--- C4AF

CaO + SiO2 -> CaO.SiO2

CaO.SiO2 + CaO -> (CaO)2.SiO2

Preheater

Different Type of Preheater System

4 , 5 , 6 stage ,One string - With or Without Calciner
4 , 5 stage ,Two String - Calciner String , Kiln String
4, 5 stage ,Two string - Both Calciner String
Typical : 5 stage , Two String - Calciner & Kiln String

More Stages gets added in Preheater String

More Heat Recovery from Waste Heat Gas
More Capital Cost
Less Temperature For Raw Mill Grinding

Preheater

Aim
Maximum Heat Recovery from waste heat gas
Maximum Calcination without melting raw meal

Operational Philosophy
Heat exchange between Waste Heat Gas & Raw Meal
takes place through Direct Heat Exchange in Riser Duct
Separation of Raw Meal Solid from Gas is carried out in
Cyclone at each stage.
Maximum Calcination is carried out in Pre-Calciner by
burning Coal.

Preheater

Process
Gas enters from bottom cyclone
Raw meal enters from top cyclone
Gas is sucked by induced draft fan from kiln
Fan is placed at Preheater Outlet
From Last but One cyclone raw meal goes to PreCalciner where coal is fired
Tertiary air is sucked in Calciner from cooler
After Pre-Calciner Raw meal is carried to last
cyclone by air & Separated raw meal from this
cyclone goes to Kiln

Preheater

Major Operating Parameter

PHOutlet Temp
: Heat Recovery
PHOutlet CO
: ESP security, Oxygen Shortage
Calciner Outlet Temp
: Completion of Calcination
Kiln inlet Material Temp : Material Fusion Temp
PHOutlet Draft / O2 : Excess Air , Leakage
Cyclone Cone Draft
: Cyclone Jamming
Handles
PHOutlet Fan Damper /RPM : Air Quantity
Calciner Coal
: Heat Quantity

Preheater

MV-CV Relation

Preheater

Abnormal Conditions & control

High PHOutlet CO

Cause:
Less Oxygen for Coal Combustion
High Calciner Coal Feed rate
Control:
Cut Calciner Coal
Increase PHFan RPM or Damper

Preheater

Abnormal Conditions & control

High Kiln inlet material temp

Cause :
High Calciner Coal Feed rate
Less Raw Meal Rate
Secondary Burning of Coal in preheater
Control:
Cut Calciner Coal

Preheater

Abnormal Conditions & control

High Calciner Outlet temp

Cause :
High Calciner Coal Feed rate
Less Raw Meal Rate
Control:
Cut Calciner Coal

Preheater

Abnormal Conditions & control

Low Cyclone cone draft

Cause :
Less Air
Coating in cyclone
Brick lining failure , Flap damper Malfunction
Control:
Cut Raw Meal Feed Rate

Kiln

Aim
Maintain Clinker Quality
Minimize Heat Consumption

Operational Philosophy
Heat is generated by Coal combustion
High residence time i.e. 20 min
High Temp 1500oC
Maximum Contact area of Hot air & Material by
circulatory motion (4 rpm)

Kiln

Kiln
Process
Kiln is cylindrical rotating furnace (60 m length) &
installed slightly slant (3-4degree) to carry the
material to lower end when rotating.
At Lower end is the burner where coal is fired through
using primary air for conveying.
Cooler Secondary air is sucked into Kiln which is at high
temp ( Due to heat recuperation from hot clinker ).
Secondary Air from Cooler & Primary Air gets heated by
combustion of coal.
This air travels opposite to material flow & Heat
Exchange between air & material takes place

Kiln

Major Operating Parameter

Kiln Torque
: Clinker Quality
Burning Zone Temp.
: Good Heat Content
Clinker Lt..wt. & Free Lime
: Clinker Quality
Kiln Hood Draft
: Safety & Maintenance
Kiln inlet CO or O2 : Oxygen Availability

Handles
Kiln Feed
Kiln RPM
Kiln Coal

Clinker Quality
Clinker Phase Requirement

Kiln

C3 S (Alite)

- 40 to 60%

:Rapid Contribution to strength

C2 S (Belite)

- 20 to 30%

: Slow Contribution to strength

C3 A

- 5 to 12%

: Rapid Contribution to strength

C4 AF

- 5 to 12%

: V. Slow Contribution to strnth

Indirect/Direct Measurement of Good Clinker

Litre Weight (density)
- Represent phase%
Free Lime (CaO)
- Should be minimized

Clinker Quality

Affecting Parameters

Degree of Kiln feed mixing

Kiln Feed Granulometry
Burnability of kiln feed
Degree of heating
Retention time
Clinker Cooling Rate

Kiln

Kiln

MV-CV Relation

Kiln

Abnormal Conditions & control

High Kiln inlet CO

Cause :
Less Air
More Kiln Coal
Control:
Cut Kiln Coal
Increase PH fan RPM / Open Damper

Kiln

Abnormal Conditions & control

LOW kiln Torque/ Dusty Kiln

Cause :
Less Heat Content in Kiln
High Kiln filling
Control:
Reduce Kiln RPM & Increase Kiln Coal
Decrease Kiln Feed

Kiln

Abnormal Conditions & there control

Red Spot

Cause :
Coating Deformation
Brick dislodging
Control:
Reduce Kiln RPM
Stop Kiln

Cooler

Aim
Recuperate Maximum Heat from Clinker
Maintain Clinker Quality
Minimize Clinker Temperature

Operational Philosophy
Maximum Heat Recuperation in first few
compartments is achieved by keeping high bed height
of Clinker
Lower Clinker temperature is achieved in last few
compartments by Low Clinker bed height & High Air
volume

Process
Types Of Cooler

Cooler

Reciprocating Grate Cooler

Perforated Grates moving one over other creating forward motion
for clinker.
Air with high velocity flows vertically up 90 degree to Clinker
flow.

IKN Cooler
Grates Doesnt move. Forward motion for clinker is created by
Horizontal Air Jet with very high velocity.
Air with very high velocity flows parallel to Clinker flow & then
moves vertically up.

Cooler

Cooler
Major Operating Parameter
Under-Grate Pressure
: Clinker Bed
Grate Drive Amps : Clinker Bed
Clinker Temperature
: Clinker property , Safety
Secondary Air Temp.
: Recuperation
Hood Draft
: Safety
Cooler Vent Temperature: Heat Loss
Handles
Air Volume / Fan Damper / Fan RPM
Grate Drive Speed
Vent fan Damper / RPM

Cooler

MV-CV Relation

Cooler

Abnormal Conditions & control

Grate Drive Amps High

Cause :
High Clinker Bed Height
Lumps
Control:
Increase Grate Speed