The Atom

and
REDOX

Introduction
Molar Mass
Ionisation
Energy
Subshells

Atomic Structure: Introduction

e-

e-

e-

ee

e-

Dalton (1805)
Thomson (1897)
Rutherford (1909)
Atoms

Electrons

Central Positive Nucleus

Bohr
(1913)

Moseley (1913)
Chadwick (1932)

Atomic Structure: Introduction

Protons and Neutrons in the Nucleus
tiny but very dense, so makes up
almost all of the mass
Electrons in Shells
Most of the atom is made up of empty space!

Different atoms contain different numbers of protons and neutrons, they

can be identified by their nuclear symbol (a different letter or pair of
letters for each element)

12

Mass Number:

Atomic Number:

Definition: the number of protons and neutrons in the

nucleus

Definition: the number of protons in the

nucleus

Atomic Structure: Introduction

Isotopes
Definition: Atoms with the same number of protons (same element)
but with different numbers of neutrons
You could also say isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number
but different mass numbers
Isotopes of an element react and behave in exactly the same way as
chemical reactions only involve electrons

12

13

14

12 6 = 6 neutrons

13 6 = 7 neutrons

14 6 = 8 neutrons

Atomic Structure: Introduction

Ions

Definition: An atom (or group of atoms) that has gained or lost

electrons and therefore carries charge
Atoms and ions of the same element will behave and react very
differently, chemical reactions often cause atoms and ions to
gain/lose electrons

56

56

26

26

2+

56

3+

Fe Fe Fe
26

26 electrons = neutral26 2 electrons = 2+ ion26 3 electrons = 3+ ion

Atomic Structure: Relative Mass

BIPM: Bureau
International
des Poids et
Mesures

At the BIPM in Paris, France, a sample of carbon-12

isotope is stored as an international standard to
compare the masses of all other substances to.
Why was carbon chosen?
Easy to obtain a isotopically pure sample
Unreactive
We define 1u (unified atomic unit) as exactly 1/12
of the mass of a 12C atom. The masses of other
isotopes and elements are often compared to this
value, we call these relative masses.

Relative Isotopic Mass:

Definition: The mass of an atom of an isotope compared with one
twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon-12
Relative isotopic masses are equal to mass numbers, they should
always be whole numbers

Atomic Structure: Relative Mass

Relative Atomic Mass Ar:
Definition: The weighted mean mass of an atom of an element
compared with one-twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon-12
(abundance x mass) + (abundance x mass) + (abun..
= Ar with units
total abundance

gmol-1

Bromine is made up of:

51%

Br

79

49%

Br

81

(51 x 79) + (49 x=81)

79.9
100

Atomic Structure: Relative Mass

Individual Atoms - Relative Atomic Mass Ar

Simple Molecules - Relative Molecular Mass Mr

Add up the Ar of every atom in one
molecule
E.g. Ethanol, C2H5OH
(12 x 2) + (1 x 6) + 16 = 46 gmol-1
Giant Structures - Relative Formula Mass Mr
Add up the Ar of every atom in one
formula unit
E.g. Magnesium Chloride, MgCl2
24.3 + (2 x 35.5) = 95.3 gmol-1

Atomic Structure: Ionisation

6.02 x 10 things
Energy
First Ionisation Energy:
23

Definition: the amount of energy required to remove a mole of

electrons from a mole of gaseous atoms to make a mole of gaseous
1+ ions

X(g) e- + X+(g)

State Symbol: Gaseous

To understand ionisation energy you first need to understand a few

key terms
1. Atomic radius: the distance between the centre of the nucleus
and the outer electrons
2. Nuclear charge: the amount of protons in the nucleus
3. Shielding: the number of inner shells repelling electrons in
outer shells
ALL OF THESE THINGS HAVE AN EFFECT ON
Nuclear attraction: The pull the nucleus exerts on the outer

Atomic Structure: Ionisation

Energy
First ionisation energy increases
as you move across the periodic
table (along a row, or period)
Lithium

Boron

Li(g) Li+(g) + e-

Fluorine

B(g) B+(g) + e-

F(g) F+(g) + e-

801 kJmol-1

1681 kJmol-1

520 kJmol-1

We need to be able to explain this trend using the terms atomic

radius, nuclear charge, shielding and finally nuclear attraction

As you move across the period table the atomic radius of the
atoms
decreases
The nuclear charge increases
This increases the nuclear attraction on the outer electrons, so
more
energy is required to remove them
(Shielding remains the same as all the atoms have the same

Atomic Structure: Ionisation

Energy
First ionisation energy decreases
as you move down the periodic
table (down a column, or group)
Lithium

Potassium

Li(g) Li+(g) + e-

Caesium

K(g) K+(g) + e-

Cs(g) Cs+(g) + e-

419 kJmol-1

376 kJmol-1

520 kJmol-1

We also need to be able to explain this trend using the terms atomic
radius, nuclear charge, shielding and finally nuclear attraction
As you move down the period table the atomic radius of the
atoms
increases
Shielding also increases as the atoms have more shells
Therefore nuclear attraction on the outer electrons decreases,
so less energy
is required to remove them
despite the fact that nuclear charge increases

Atomic Structure: Ionisation

Successive Ionisation Energies
Energy
Second Ionisation Energy:
Definition: the amount of energy required to remove a mole
of electrons from a mole of gaseous 1+ ions to make a
mole of gaseous 2+ ions
Third Ionisation Energy:
Definition : the amount of energy required to remove a
mole of electrons from a mole of gaseous 2+ ions to make
a mole of gaseous 3+ ions
-1

First I.E

Mg(g) e- + Mg+(g)

Second I.E

Mg

Third I.E

(g)

e + Mg
-

2+

783 kJmol

1451 kJmol-1
(g)

7733 kJmol-1

Mg2+(g) e- + Mg3+(g)

10541 kJmol-1

Fourth I.E

Mg3+(g) e- + Mg4+(g)

Fifth I.E

Mg4+(g) e- + Mg5+(g)

Sixth I.E

Mg5+(g) e- + Mg6+(g)

Seventh I.E

Mg6+(g) e- + Mg7+(g)

big
jump!

Atomic Structure: Ionisation

We can see the big jump more
clearly on a
Energy
graph

big
jump!

Energy

2+
1+
3+

Mg

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Successive Ionisation Energies of Mg

tron is
c
e
l
e
d
ir
inner
The th
n
a
m
ed fro
remov
shell

Atomic Structure: Ionisation

The trend in successive ionisation
enthalpies can also be explained
Energy
using the terms atomic radius, nuclear charge, shielding and finally

nuclear attraction
g trend
in
s
a
re
c
in
e
th
Explaining

As each electron is removed there is less repulsion between

electrons, so the atomic radius gets (slightly) smaller
The nuclear charge remains the same
Therefore nuclear attraction on the outer electrons
increases, so more energy is required to remove them

jumps
e
th
g
in
in
la
p
x
E

Some ionisation enthalpies result in an electron being

removed from an inner shell closer to the nucleus which
experiences less shielding
Therefore nuclear attraction on the outer electrons increases
dramatically, so a lot more energy is required to remove

Atomic Structure: Subshells &

Orbitals

The large peaks and

troughs tie in with our
knowledge of electron
shells

so the smaller peaks and

troughs indicated there may
actually be smaller shells within
shells! We now call these
subshells, which contain orbitals.

Atomic Structure: Subshells &

Orbitals

The Solar System Model

Orbitals

shell is made up of atomic orbitals

finition: A region of a molecule which can hold a pair of electrons with opposite

ch orbital holds a maximum of 2 electrons

ere are 4 different types of orbital s,p,d and f each with their own shape
Orbitals are often represented as boxes, the electrons
they contain as arrows, each with opposite spin

Atomic Structure: Subshells &

Orbitals

1 s orbital makes up an s subshell 3 p orbitals makes up a p subsh

Found in all shells
Found in shells 2+
Lowest energy 1st to be filled
2nd lowest energy 2nd to be filled

5 d orbitals makes up a d subshell

7 f orbitals makes up an f subshe
Found in shells 3+
Found in shells 4+
3rd lowest energy 3rd to be filled 4th lowest energy 4th to be filled

Energy

Atomic Structure: Subshells &

4pOrbitals
Filling Order
3d
4s
3p

6p

6d

6f

5s

5p

5d

5f

4s

4p

4d

4f

3s

3p

3d

2s

2p

1s
3s

Subshells fill from the lowest

energy upwards
2p

2
2s

6s

1s

Each orbital is filled singly

until the subshell is half full,
then pairing begins

Atomic Structure: Subshells &

Example: Iron
Example: Chlorine
Orbitals

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2

3d is still
written
before 4s

Atomic Structure: Subshells &

Electronic
Orbitals
2
2
4
configurations act Oxygen: 1s 2s 2p
and its the
4th element
across

like an address for

many elements:

O is in period 2...

it is in the p block

Atomic Structure: Subshells &

Example: Chromium
Example: Copper
Orbitals
2
2
6
2
6
5
1
2
2
6
2
6
10

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d

Having a half
filled or fully
filled 3d
subshell
makes Cr and
Cu more
stable

4s1