Prepared by:

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Course Outlines

Introduction to mobile communication

CDMA network architecture
CDMA network interfaces
CDMA principles
Transmission problems
CDMA air interface
CDMA key technologies
CDMA Traffic Cases

Introduction to Mobile Communication

Why communication systems
communication systems structure
Terminals
Network
Transmission media
Why wireless
History of wireless communication
Introduction to mobile systems
Multiple Access Techniques
Wireless Challenges
Cellular System Concepts

Why communication systems

What is communication systems

why communication systems
Examples of communication systems

Communication system architecture

Structure of communication systems

Terminals (televisions , radios, phones ,..etc)
Networks (television networks , PSTN , mobile networks .etc)
Transmission media

Why Wireless?

source

Transmission medium

Destination

Why Wireless? (cont.)

The kinds of transmission medium :
1- Twisted-pair:
It is very low bandwidth and it is easily tapped either physically or by
monitoring its electromagnetic radiation
2- Coaxial cable:
It is greater bandwidth than twisted-pair but it is very expensive.
3- optical fibers:
It is very high bandwidth , very high bit rate and inherently transmission
medium.

Why Wireless? (cont.)

Although, On a wired transmission link (copper or fiber optic), the
characteristics of the medium are very well controlled and easily
predicted
It still fixed and limit the mobility of the user
While the wireless (Radio) telecommunication bridged the distances
between people who wish to Communicate while they move.
So, we will use the radio waves to transmit and receive.
But first we need to know the properties of these waves.

History of wireless communication

18381866 Telegraphy: Morse perfects his system; Stein hill finds that the earth can be used for
a current path; commercial service is initiated

1864 Maxwells equations predict electromagnetic radiation.

18871907 Wireless telegraphy :

Heinrich Hertz verifies Maxwells theory.
Demonstrations by Marconi and Popov; Marconi patents complete wireless telegraph system
(1897). 19231938 Television: Mechanical image-formation system demonstrated; DuMont and
others perfect vacuum cathode-ray tubes; field tests and experimental broadcasting begin.

1936 Armstrongs paper states the case of frequency modulation (FM) radio.

1937 Alec Reeves conceives pulse code modulation (PCM).

19381945 Radar and microwave systems developed during World War II; FM used extensively for
military communications.

1962 Satellite communication begins with Telstar I.

History of wireless communication (cont.)

19681969 Digitalization of telephone network begins.

19701975 PCM standards developed by CCITT.

19751985 High-capacity optical systems developed; the breakthrough of

optical technology and fully integrated switching systems.

19801985 The first generation of modern cellular mobile

networks put into service. But it was all based on analog
system:
1981 NMT-450 in Northern Europe
1983 AMPS in the United States.
1985 TACS in Europe and China

Introduction to mobile systems

What is mobile systems

Difference between mobile systems and PSTN
The first generation of modern cellular mobile networks
( based on analog system)
1981 NMT-450 in Northern Europe
1983 AMPS in the United States.
1985 TACS in Europe and China

Introduction to mobile systems (2G)

1985 Standardization for second generation digital cellular systems is

initialized.

1992 GSM900 in World Wide.

1993 GSM1800 in Europe.

1994 GSM1900 was firstly commercial.

Global System for Mobile (GSM) is a second-generation digital cellular

telephone system.

GSM became the world's leading and fastest growing mobile standard,
spanning over 174 countries, serving more than one in ten of the world's
population.

Difference between 1G and 2G mobile networks

The main difference between 1G networks and 2G networks is
1 G systems was analog but 2 G systems was digital

The analog mobile systems have main restrictions of:

the limited capacity,
voice-only services
high operational cost.
different systems are incompatible in terms of equipment and
operation, e.g NMT and TACS.

Difference between 1G and 2G mobile networks

Capacity
While with digital systems such as GSM,

the available frequency spectrum is used more efficiently, leading

to increased capacity
reductions in associated costs for network operators, equipment
suppliers and subscribers.

Services
Analog mobile systems were originally designed for voice
digital mobile systems can support voice, data and a range of
additional services such as:
a short message service
call forwarding
ISDN compatible.

Introduction to mobile systems (2.5G)

GSM offers circuit-switched with good voice quality, but it is
providing data rates of 9.6 kbps which is too slow.
In 1999 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) reuses the existing
GSM infrastructure to provide higher data rate
It was lunched to increase the data rate to 115 kbps by:
using the packet-switched in data transmission
Defining new coding scheme.
In 2001 Evolved Data rate for GSM Evolution (EDGE) offers data
rate of 384 kbps by using new modulation scheme(8psk)

Introduction to mobile systems (North America)

In 1993 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a secondgeneration digital cellular telephone system that was first
deployed.
CDMAOne describes a complete wireless system based on the
TIA/EIA IS-95 CDMA standard, including IS-95A and IS-95B
revisions.
IS 95A provides data rate up to 9.6Kbps/14.4Kbps
IS 95B Provides data rate up to 115.2Kbps
IS 95B is categorized as 2.5 G
CDMAOne provides a family of related services including cellular
and fixed wireless (wireless local loop).

3G Systems

In 2000 the ITU-T was responsible for the IMT-2000 specification,

which is meant to be a guideline for every 3G standard
Universal Mobile Telecommunication Service (UMTS) is the marketing
name for the 3G has two standardization bodies:
1- 3GPP which uses the W-CDMA technology.
2- 3GPP2 which uses the CDMA2000 technology.

WCDMA as a 3G Approach

The 3G solution for GSM is called WCDMA (Wideband CDMA).

WCDMA requires a new radio spectrum as it operates in ultra
wide 5-MHz radio channels.
WCDMA meets the IMT-2000 requirements of 384 kbps
outdoors and 2 Mbps indoors.
The earliest deployment was by NTT DoCoMo.

CDMA2000 as a 3G Approach
CDMA2000 represents a family of technologies that includes:
CDMA2000 1X
CDMA2000 1XEV.
CDMA2000 1X can double the voice capacity of CDMAOne
networks and delivers peak packet data speeds of 307 kbps in
mobile environments.
CDMA2000 1xEV includes:
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO delivers peak data speeds of 2.4Mbps
and supports applications such as MP3 transfers and video
conferencing
CDMA2000 1xEV-DV provides integrated voice and
simultaneous high-speed packet data multimedia services at
speeds of up to 3.09 Mbps.

3G Systems & IMT2000

IS-95

W-CDMA

CDMA2000

GSM

IMT-2000

2 Mbps Global Roaming with a single handset

Greater than 2 Mbps User Data Rate
10 Different Frequency Bands
CDMA Low Power (PSD) Results in:
Low Detection Probability
Less Susceptible to Jamming

Migration to 3G

Multiple Access Techniques

But how will we use this radio frequencies to serve all users.
Meaning of multiple access techniques
Benefits of multiple access techniques

Why we must use multiple techniques

Multiple Access Techniques

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Strength

f1

f2

f3

Frequency

Multiple Access Techniques

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Strength

e
m
Ti

f1

f2

f3

Frequ
ency

Multiple Access Techniques

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA).

Strength

Frequency

FDMA, TDMA, vs CDMA

Wireless Challenges

To provide coverage for a large service area of a mobile network we have two Options:

(A) Install one transceiver with high radio power at the center of the service
area
Drawbacks:

The mobile equipments used in this network should have high output
power in order to be able to transmit signals across the coverage area
So, Powerful transmitters & huge equipment are required.
The usage of the radio resources would be limited, So, Capacity is
limited to the frequency band allocated.

Wireless Challenges
(B) Divide the service area into smaller areas (cells)

Advantages:

Each cell as well as the mobile handsets will have relatively small
power transceivers.
The frequency spectrum might be reused in two far
separated cells. This yields:

1- Unlimited capacity of the system.

2- Good interference characteristics

So, The solution is going to Cellular Systems

Cellular System Concepts

The Area to be covered is divided into small cells.

So,

Low Transmission power.

Smaller equipment size.
Capacity of the system can be increased,

Ex.: In the figure:

Capacity of one big cell =
Capacity of the band Capacity of cellular design = 7 * Capacity of one big cell.

Cellular System Concepts Frequency reuse

Reuse Pattern(Cluster):
3

Cells are grouped into Clusters

Available Band is distributed among the cells of the
cluster
Each frequency is reused after the same distance D
Reuse Plan:
(D/R)= 3N

4
1
7

5
6

N=7 Cell Cluster

N is the number of cells in a cluster .

Where R is the cell radius

3
3

5
6

3
2

3
2

4
1

4
1
7

5
6

7
5

5
6

7 Cell Reuse Plan

Cellular System Concepts Sectorization

For more efficient use of available spectrum and

hence enhancing the system capacity ,each cell is
divided into three sectors of 120o

In each sector a directional antenna is used whose

narrow beams allow reusing the channels more often

Sectorization is suitable to use in dense urban areas

Cellular System Concepts Sectorization

Directional Antenna

Cellular System Concepts Omni Sector

Omni Antenna

Course Outlines

Introduction to mobile communication

CDMA network architecture
CDMA network interfaces
CDMA principles
Transmission problems
CDMA air interface
CDMA key technologies
CDMA Traffic Cases

Definition of Coverage Areas

Service area
PLMN area
MSC area
Location area
Cell area
Sector
area

CDMA2000 1x network

The Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

Consists of the radio transmitters, receivers and the antenna system

required to provide the coverage area for one cell.

Records and passes to the BSC the Signal strength measurements

Converts the CDMA radio signals into a format that can be recognized by
the BSC.

Channel coding and interleaving

Spreading and despreading

Realization of diversity

Demodulation

The Base Station Controller (BSC)

Manages the Radio Communication with the mobile station over the air
interface.
Supervises the transmission network and the operation of each BTS
The BSC is the central node within a BSS and co-ordinates the actions
of Base Stations. (i.e. The BSC controls a major part of the radio
network)
BTS configuration: This involves the allocation of codes to channel
combinations and power levels for each cell according to available
equipment.
Cell Description Data (e.g. cell identity, maximum and minimum output
powers in the cell).
control the power control process

The Base Station Controller (BSC)

Handling of MS connections :

During Call Set Up

Paging:
Signaling set-up
Assignment of traffic channel
During a Call:
Dynamic power control in MS and BTS
Locating

The Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)

The primary node in a CDMA network is the MSC. It is the node, which
controls calls both to MSs and from MSs. The primary functions of an
MSC include the following:

Administers its Base Station Controllers BSC(s).

Switches calls to/from mobile subscribers.
Records charging and accounting details
Provides the gateway functionality to other networks.
Service provisioning.
Control of connected BSCs.
Provides the gateway functionality to other networks.

Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC):

Gateway functionality enables an MSC to interrogate a HLR in order to

route a mobile terminating call. It is not used in calls from MSs to any
terminal other than another MS.

For example, if a person connected to the PSTN wants to make a call to a

CDMA mobile subscriber, then the PSTN exchange will access the CDMA
network by first connecting the call to a GMSC

Home Location Register (HLR):

The HLR is a centralized network database that stores and manages all mobile
subscriptions belonging to a specific operator.

It acts as a permanent store for a persons subscription information until that

subscription is cancelled.

The primary functions of the HLR include:

Stores for each mobile subscriber:

Basic subscriber categories.

Supplementary services.
Current location.
Allowed/barred services.
Authentication data.

Subscription database management

Controls the routing of mobile terminated calls and SMS.

Visitor Location Register (VLR):

The role of a VLR in a CDMA network is to act as a temporary storage location for
subscription information for MSs, which are within a particular MSC service area.

Thus, there is one VLR for each MSC service area. This means that the MSC does not
have to contact the HLR (which may be located in another country) every time the
subscriber uses a service or changes its status.

The VLR may be integrated with the MSC.

For the duration when the MS is within one MSC service area, then the VLR contains a
complete copy of the necessary subscription details, including the following
information:

Identity numbers for the subscriber

Supplementary service information (e.g. Does the subscriber has call
waiting
activated or not)
Activity of MS (e.g. idle or busy)
Current Location Area of MS

Short Message Center (MC or SC)

As an independent entity in the CDMA cellular mobile communication

system

the short message center works in coordination with other entities such
as MSC and HLR

Functions of SMC

to implement the reception, storing and transfer of the short messages

from CDMA cellular mobile communication system subscribers,
and store subscriber-related short message data.
Manages the resend of the SMS

1x Packet Data Service

Compared with IS-95, in order for the CDMA2000 user data service to access, the
CDMA2000-1X core network should be added with:

PDSN,
HA (providing Mobile IP service)
AAA;
these three functional entities are the cdma2000-1X access network should
be added with PCF functional entity.

These new devices are required by the packet data service transmission to
provide high-speed access to the Internet, videophone, and e-commerce to the
users in the 3G mobile communication system.

System Architecture

IP Network

PDSN
BTS

BSC/PCF

AAA

R-P Interface, A10/A11

Billing
System

HA
Firewall

PDSN

As a access gateway , PDSN(packet data service node) provides the

CDMA2000 mobile station with services for Internet access or Intranet
access.PDSN acts as an interface between Radio Network and Packet Data
Network.

Provides the mobile station with Simple IP access service or Mobile IP

access service.In Simple IP, PDSN acts as a Network access server, while
in Mobile IP, PDSN acts as Foreign Agent(FA) for Mobile Station.

At the CDMA2000 1x stage, the maximum access rate available for each
subscriber is 153.6kbps

PDSN acts as a client of AAA server.

AAA

AAA authenticates the script file information of the subscribers, authorizes data
services, and Collects accounting information from PDSN, completes accounting.
Authentication
simple IP and mobile IP.
Authorization
subscriber configuration information.
Accounting
collecting billing data(both radio specific and IP network specific) for each
packet data call.

Access Method

Simple IP Access
- Similar to the network access through dialing-up modem on the fixed
telephone .
- Assigning dynamic IP addresses and accomplishing the data communication
with MS as the calling party .

Mobile IP Access
- Providing a route mechanism in the internet. Assigning MS fixed addresses
to connect any sub-networks
- Accomplishing the data communication with MS as the calling party or the
called party, and holding data communication when MS handoff between
different PPP link.

Parameters Involved

In a CDMA system, the following parameters are defined to identify a user and his
location:
MIN/IMSI

MDN

ESN

SID/NID

LAI

MIN/IMSI

Not more than 15 digits

3 digits

2 digits

MCC

MNC

MSIN
NMSI

IMSI

Mobile subscriber identity/international mobile subscriber identity

For example, 0907550001/460030907550001

MDN

CC

MAC

H 0H 1H 2H 3

ABCD

International mobile subscriber DN

National valid mobile subscriber number

Mobile directory number

For example, 8613307550001

ESN

A unique Electronic Serial Number (ESN) is used to identify single

MS. An ESN includes 32 bits and has the following structure:
31......24

23......18

17......0

bit

Manufacturers number retained equipment SN

For example, FD 03 78 0A (the 10th Motorola 378 mobile phone)
The equipment serial number is allocated by a manufacturer.

SID/NID

MSCID (Exchange Identity)

= System Identity (SID) + Exchange number (SWIN)
is used to represent a certain set of equipment in an
NSS network. For example,
Unicom CDMA Shenzhen MSC is labeled as 3755+01

LAI
LAI = Location Area Identity

PAGING message is broadcast within a local area, the size of which depends on traffic,
paging bearer capability, signaling flow , etc.

Format: MCC+MNC+LAC

MCC: Mobile Country Code, 3 digits. For example, China is 460.

MNC: Mobile Network Code, 2 digits. For example, the MNC of Unicom
is 03.
LAC: Location Area Code, a 2-byte-long hexadecimal BCD code. 0000
cannot be used with FFFE.

For example, 460030100

Course Outlines

Introduction to mobile communication

CDMA network architecture
CDMA network interfaces
CDMA principles
Transmission problems
CDMA air interface
CDMA key technologies
CDMA Traffic Cases

CDMA interface techniques

What is interface
Functions of interfaces
Why we need such technologies
To provide a high-speed, low delay multiplexing and switching network
to any type of user traffic, such as voice support, data,or video
applications
Examples for switching techniques used
ATM
SS7

What is ATM?
ATM for Telecommunications is Asynchronous Transfer Mode, (not
Automatic Teller Machine!).
ATM is a technology that has transport, switching, network management,
and customer services built into it right from the start.
In general, ATM means that traffic is carried in small, fixed-length packets
called cells.
A technology that integrates advantages of circuit switch and packet switch.
ATM can support any type of user services, such as voice, data, or video
service.

ATM Overview
5-Bytes
Header

48-Bytes
Payload

53byte fixed length cell= 5Bytes cell

header+48Bytes payload.
ATM must set up virtual connection before
communication.

Contract

ATM network will confer with terminal on

parameter of QoS before the connection is
set up.

ATMs Advantage
Integration of various services such as voice, image,
video, data and multimedia.
Standardization of network structures and components.
This results in cost savings for network providers.
Transmission that is independent of the medium used
PDH, SDH, SONET and other media can be used to
transport ATM cells.
ATM is scaleable, i.e. the bandwidth can be adapted
extremely flexibly to meet user requirements.
Guaranteed transmission quality to match the service
required by the user (quality of service, QoS).

Connectionless & Connection-oriented

Connection-oriented : All packets
are transferred from the same
route , so the receiving order of
packets depends on the sending
order. Time delay is fixed.

p
Setu
p
u
t
Se

p
Setu

Connectionless: Every packet is

transferred from different routes, so
the receiving order of packets
doesnt possibly depend on the
sending order.

Setu
p

Traditional Switch Models Characteristic

- Circuit Switching
Data is sent from the same route, so time delay is fixed
High-speed switching
Fixed rate
- Packet Switching
Support multi-rate switching
Take full advantage of bandwidth/waste of bandwidth
Time delay is not fixed

ATM Cell

ATM Cell

GFC ( Generic Flow Control): It is intended for control of a possible bus system at the
user interface and is not used at the moment.

VPI ( Virtual Path Identifier): The VPI contains the second part of the addressing
instructions and is of higher priority than the VCI.

VCI ( Virtual Channel Identifier): VCI in each case indicates a path section between
switching centers or between the switching center and the subscriber.

PTI ( Payload Type Identifier): Indicates the type of data in the information field.

CLP ( Cell Loss Priority): Determines whether a cell can be preferentially deleted or not
in the case of a transmission bottleneck.

HEC ( Header Error Control): Provided in order to control and, to some extent, correct
errors in the header data that may occur. The HEC is used to synchronize the receiver to
the start of the cell.

VP and VC
Why two fields?
think VPI as a bundle of virtual
channels. (256 VPI on one link)
the individual virtual channels
have unique VCIs. The VCI
values may be reused in each
virtual path.

ATM Virtual Connection

UNI cell
VPI =1
VCI =1

Port

VPI

VCI

26

44
1

3
2

NNI cell
VPI =26
VCI =44
3
1

Port

VPI

VCI

26

44

44

UNI cell
VPI =20
VCI =30
3

NNI cell
VPI =2
VCI =44

NNI cell
VPI =6
VCI =44
3

Port

VPI

VCI

44

20

30

ATM Virtual Connection

Port

VPI

VCI

44

44

Features of ATM
Voice
Data
Cells

Video

Connection oriented
Fast packet switching
Statistical multiplexer
Supports voice, data and video service
Provides QoS

ATM Sublayer Model

ATM Protocol Stack Model
User
CS
Interface
manage
ment

SAR

AAL

OSI Reference Model

7 Application
6 Presentation
5

ATM

Session

4 Transport
3

Network

Data link

Physical

TC

PHY
PMD

Function of ATM Physical Layer

Two sublayers:
AAL

Transmission Convergence Sublayer

(TC)

ATM

PHY

transmission frame generation/recovery

Processing HEC
cell delimiting
transmission frame adaptation

Physical Medium Dependent Sublayer

(PMD)

Link coding
Network physical medium

Function of ATM Layer

AAL
ATM
PHY

Cell switch

Quality of Service

Processing the cell header

Types of payload

Multiplexing /Demultiplexing of
different connection cell

Function of AAL layer

AAL
ATM
PHY

Support services for user

Segment and reassemble

Complete the change between

User-PDU and ATM payload

Function of ATM AAL Overview

Function of ATM AAL:
Constant
Bit Rate

Data Variable
Bursts Bit Rate

Provide a high-speed,
low delay multiplexing
AAL SDU

and switching network

ATM Payload
ATM Cell

to support any type of

Multiplexing

voice, data,or video

user service, such as

applications.

TCP/IP Process
TCP

TCP Header App Data

IP

IP Header TCP header App Data

SNAP/LLC
CS

LLC IP Header TCP Header App Data

LLC IP Header TCP Header App Data

PAD CPCS-PDU Tail

AAL5
SAR SAR-SDU#1

ATM
PHY

SAR-SDU#2

SAR-SDU#3

SAR-PDU#4

SAR-PDU#5

Cell header will be added to SAR-PDU, whose VPI and VCI depends on
the map table of IP address to PVC/SVC. Then ,the cells will be sent to
Physical Layer.
Perform the transmission of ATM cells via physical media.

INARP in IPOAPVC Mode

Any IPOA terminal that wants to communicate with other terminal must know
the destination IP address. But how to know the IP address? PVC connecting the
source and destination terminals should be set up first. For example: Terminal A must
set up a PVC to B in order to know the IP address of B.
ATM Network

PVC

Terminal A IP:192 .168 .1 .1

Terminal B IP:192 .168 .1 .2

Network Interfaces

Main interfaces

1- Um interface (air interface)

It is defined as the communication interface between MS and BTS

It is physical linking is realized through radio link
2- A interface

It is defined as the communication Interface between NSS and BSS (MSC and BSC)
It is physical liking is realized using standard 2.04 Mbit/s (E1) PCM digital transmission link

Network Interfaces

Network subsystem Interface

1- B interface:

It is defined between VLR ad MSC

It is used by MSC to ask VLR for information about the location of MS, or to update MS
location
2- C interface

It is defined between HLR and MSC

It is used for route selection and management information (billing)

Network Interfaces

Network subsystem Interface

3- D interface

It is defined between HLR and VLR

It is used for exchanging the information about MS location and Subscriber management
The VLR is integrated with MSC and HLR is integrated with AC. So, the physical linking of
D-interface is realizing through the standard 2.048 Mbits/s
4 - E interface

It is defined as the interface among different MSCs of controlling adjacent areas [Handoff]
it is physical linking is realized through the standard 2.048 Mbits/s PCM digital
transmission link.

Course Outlines

Introduction to mobile communication

CDMA network architecture
CDMA network interfaces
CDMA principles
Transmission problems
CDMA air interface
CDMA key technologies
CDMA Traffic Cases

Multiple Access Technologies

Code

CDMA

Time
Based on codes, all users obtain traffic
channels at the same time and on the same
frequency band, for example, WCDMA and
CDMA2000

User3
User2
User1

Time

TDMA

Frequency
User 3
User 2
User 1

Time

FDMA

Traffic channels at different points of time

are allocated to different users, for example,
DAMPS and GSM

Frequency

User 1 User 2 User 3

Frequency

Traffic channels on different frequency bands are

allocated to different users,for example, AMPS and
TACS

Advantages of CDMA
Advantages of CDMA
The coverage radius is 2 times of standard
GSM.
Coverage of 1000 km2: GSM needs 200
BTS's, while CDMA requires only 50.
Under the same coverage conditions, the
number of BTS 's is greatly decreased

Simple Network Planning

CDMA: N=1
Frequency reuse

GSM: N=4
2
4
3
4

Frequency reuse

3
4

3
4

1
2

2
1

1
3

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

Simple project design &

convenient capacity expansion

1
1

Green Handset

Low
Lowtransmission
transmissionpower:
power:
Accurate
Accuratepower
powercontrol,
control,handoff
handoff
control,
control,voice
voiceactivation
activation

High Quality Voice(1)

Voice quality

64k
PCM

8k
present
GSM CDMA

13k 8k EVRC
CDMA CDMA

CDMA principles

CDMA principles

CDMA principles

CDMA Principals

The core idea that makes CDMA possible was first explained by Claude
Shannon, a Bell Labs research mathematician

Shannon's work relates amount of information carried, channel

bandwidth, signal-to-noise-ratio, and detection error probability

It shows the theoretical upper limit attainable

In 1948 Claude Shannon published his landmark paper on information

theory, A Mathematical Theory of Communication.

He observed that "the fundamental problem of communication is that

of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message
selected at another point." His paper so clearly established the
foundations of information theory that his framework and terminology are
standard today.

CDMA Principals

SHANNONS CAPACITY EQUATION

C = Bw log2 [ 1 + S/N ]

Bw = bandwidth of the signal in Hertz

C = channel capacity in bits/second
S = signal power
N = noise power

Spread Spectrum
By a small amount of analysis in Shannon equation we can see that the:
bandwidth of the signal (Bw) is inversely proportional to the signal power
Sf

Sf

information
information

f0
The spectrum before spreading

f0

The spectrum after spreading

This result can be used to serve more than one user by the same frequency in the
same time by generating a new dimension to discriminate between the different
users and make the spreading process
So, the question is how to make the spreading process

Two Types of Spread Spectrum

Direct Sequence

narrowband input from a user is coded (spread) by a user-unique

broadband code, then transmitted
broadband signal is received; receiver knows, applies users code, recovers
users data
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) CDMA IS the method used in
IS-95 commercial systems

DSSS Spreading: Time-Domain View

At Originating Site:
Input A: Users Data @ 19,200 bits/second
Input B: Walsh Code #23@ 1.2288 Mcps
Output: Spread spectrum signal

via air interface

At Destination Site:
Input A: Received spread spectrum signal
Input B: Walsh Code #23 @ 1.2288 Mcps
Output: Users Data @ 19,200 bits/second
just as originally sent

DSSS Spreading: Frequency-Domain View

The improvement of

Sf

Sf

time-domain

information

information

information rate means

that the bandwidth of

f0

f0

The spectrum before spreading

The spectrum after spreading

spectrum-domain
information is spread.

Sf

Sf

information
information

Interference noise

f0

The spectrum before despreading

information

pulse interference

The Y-coordinate is energy density.

Interference noise

f0

The spectrum after despreading

White noise

Spread Spectrum

Processing Gain (CDMA Spreading Gain)

Processing gain is the ratio of a spreading rate to a data rate.

Consider a user with a 9600 bps vocoder talking on a CDMA signal
1,228,800 Hz wide.
So, the processing gain is 1,228,800/9600 = 128.
The processing gain in IS-95 system is 128, about 21dB.
The processing gain is calculated as follows:
10 x log10128 = 21db

Spread Spectrum
Principle of Using Multiple Codes
Using several multiple codes improves the system because they are independent

ORIGINATING SITE
X+A

DESTINATION

Spread-Spectrum Chip Streams

X+A+B

X+A+B+C

X+A+B

X+A

Input
Data

Recovered
Data

Spreading Spreading Spreading

Sequence Sequence Sequence

Spreading Spreading Spreading

Sequence Sequence Sequence

Advantages of Spread Spectrum

Give the ability of multiple access

Avoid interference arising from jamming signal or multi-path effects.

Covert operation:Difficult to detect

Achieve Privacy: Difficult to demodulate, (Noise like signal.)

Impossible to Eavesdrops on the signal expect using the same code

Definitions

Forward link: the direction from a base station to a mobile station

Reverse link: the direction from a mobile station to a base station

CDMA CHANNEL
CDMA
Reverse
Channel 1.25 MHz

CDMA
Forward
Channel 1.25 MHz

45 or 80 MHz

CDMA channel: Code Channels are characterized (made unique) by

mathematical codes (stream of 1s and 0s)

Walsh Code

64 Sequences, each 64 chips long

Each Walsh Code is Orthogonal to all other Walsh Codes

In forward direction, each symbol is spread with Walsh code

Walsh code is used to distinguish the user in forward link
For IS95A/B, in the reverse, every 6 symbols correspond to one Walsh code.
For example, if the symbol input is 110011,the output after spreading is
W5164 (110011=51).
For CDMA2000, in the reverse, Walsh function is used to define the type of
channel (RC 3-9)

A chip is a binary digit (0 or 1)

This means that it is possible to recognize and therefore extract

a
particular Walsh code from a mixture of other Walsh codes
which are
filtered out in the process

Walsh Code

How to generate Walsh code?

Walsh code

W 2n=

Wn Wn
Wn Wn

W 1=0
W 2=

0
0
W 4=
0
0

0
1
0
1

0
0
1
1

0
1
1
0

Its simple to generate the codes, or theyre small enough to use from ROM

W m represents ith (row) Walsh function of length m.

i

For example, W

4
2

is 0101 in the Matrix W4

Walsh Code

Two same-length binary strings are orthogonal if the result of XORing them has
the same number of 0s as 1s

M- sequence

In CDMA system, user information is encrypted by means of scrambling. The

scramble code used here is M-sequence.
Shown in the figure is an M-sequence generator made up of a shifting register
sequence with certain feed bake.
The period of the output sequence is 2N-1 (N being the number of shifting
registers). That is to say, the shifting register sequence resumes to the initial
status when every 2N-1 pieces of codes are output.

Short code

The short code is a binary M-sequence with 15 shift register.

Short code is PN sequence with period of 215 - 1 chips

Sequence with different time offsets are used to distinguish

different sectors

Minimum PN sequence offset used is 64 chips, that is to say, 512 PN offsets are
available to identify the CDMA sectors (215 /64=512).

the two sequences scramble the information on the I and Q phase channels

PNc
PNb
PNa

Long code

The long code is a PN sequence with a period of 242-1 chips

Each mobile station uses a unique User Long Code Sequence generated by:

Each clock pulse drives the Long Code State Register to its next state

The output bits are the Long Code, but shifted to the users unique offset
Generated at 1.2288 Mcps, this sequence requires 41 days, 10 hours, 12 minutes and 19.4
seconds to complete.

Long Code State Register makes long code at system reference timing, to
the 42-bit
A Mask Register holds a user-specific unique pattern of bits (32-bit
ESN+10-bit for operator)
State register and Mask register contents are added in the Summer
Summer contents are modulo-2 added to produce just a single bit output

Long code

1
0

Out

Long Code Register

(@ 1.2288 MCPS)

AND
1100011000

P E RMU T E D

S UM

ESN

Public Long Code Mask

(STATIC)

User Long Code

Sequence
(@1.2288 MCPS)

Modulo-2 Addition

Coding Process on CDMA Forward Channels

Pilot

Walsh 0

Paging

Walsh 1

BTS

Walsh 6

BTS

PN OFFSET 116

Walsh 11
Walsh 19
Walsh 20
Sync

Walsh 32

PN OFFSET

ANALOG
PN OFFSET 372

SUM/MUX

Walsh 37

PN
372

Walsh 41
Walsh 42

x
BTS

PN OFFSET 226

Walsh 55

Walsh 56
Walsh 60

BTS

PN OFFSET 510

WALSH
19

Course Outlines

Introduction to mobile communication

CDMA network architecture
CDMA network interfaces
CDMA principles
Transmission problems
CDMA air interface
CDMA key technologies
CDMA Traffic Cases

Effects on Radio Communication

Signal degradation can be classified by type :

Path Loss
during distance covered by the radio signal, it is called Free space
path loss , it can be calculated by
LFS = 32.44 + 20 log F (MHz) +20 log d (Km)

Signal attenuation
Resulting from shadowing effects introduced by the obstacles between
transmitter and receiver

Fading of the signal

Caused by numerous effects all of which are related to the Radio
propagation phenomenon

Effects on Radio Communication

the Radio propagation phenomenon

Reflection

Propagating wave impinges on an object which is large compared to

wavelength
E.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.

Diffraction

Scattering

Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructed by

surface with sharp irregular edge
Waves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS does not exist
Objects smaller than the wavelength of the propagating wave
E.g., foliage, street signs, lamp posts

Fading Problems
1.

2.

Shadowing (Normal fading):

The reason for shadowing is the presence of obstacles like large hills or
buildings in the path between the site and the mobile.
The signal strength received fluctuates around a mean value while changing
the mobile position resulting in undesirable beats in the speech signal.

Rayleigh Fading (Multi-path Fading):

The received signal is coming from different paths due to a series of

reflection on many obstacles. The difference in paths leads to a difference
in paths of the received components.

Effects on Radio Communication

Fading Problems

Fading Problems Solutions

1.

Increase the fading Margin

Fading Problems Solutions

2. Antenna diversity (Space Diversity)

The cell transceiver will use two receiving antennas instead of one. They
will be separated by a distance of about (10* ) , and they will receive
radio signals independently, so they will be affected differently by the
fading dips and the better signal received will then be selected.

Received Signal Strength

Distance

Fading Problems Solutions

Space diversity

That means we can use two antennas for receiving instead of one
antenna to avoid the fading of the signal at a certain receiving point

The RAKE Receivers

To avoid the multi-path effect there are several RAKE Receivers
in the mobile station and the base station where the signals which
arrives at mobile station at different time will be demodulated
separately and will be given a different time delay so as to keep
them in phase and the Mobile station will perform vector adding
of these signals

Rake Receiver

d1

d2
d3

transmission

receiving

Raker combination
noise

The Principle of RAKE Receiver

Correlator 1
Correlator 2

Combiner

Receive set

The combined
signal

Correlator 3
Calculate the
time delay and
signal strength

Searcher correlator

s(t)

s(t)

The RAKE technology can overcome the multi-path fading and enhance
the receive performance of the system.

Course Outlines

Introduction to mobile communication

CDMA network architecture
CDMA network interfaces
CDMA principles
Transmission problems
CDMA air interface
CDMA key technologies
CDMA Traffic Cases

CDMA air interface

What is air interface
Defines the technology between MS and BTS
Carries most of the characteristics of the mobile systems
features
Determines the capacity and quality of the system
RNP and RNO depends mainly on air interface parameters

CDMA frequency assignment

CDMA frequency assignment

There are 8 band classes stipulated in the IS-2000 for the working
frequency band of the CDMA2000:

1. Band Class0: Corresponding to the North America cellular

frequency band, also in use in China, Hong Kong,
Australia, North Korea and Taiwan.
2. Band Class1: Corresponding to the PCS frequency band in North
America.
3. Band Class2: Corresponding to the TACS frequency band.
4. Band Class3: Corresponding to the JTACS frequency band.
5. Band Class4: Corresponding to the PCS frequency band in South
Korea.
6. Band Class5: Corresponding to the NMT-450 frequency band.
(Nordic Mobile Telephone)
7. Band Class6: Corresponding to the IMT-2000 frequency band.
8. Band Class7: Corresponding to the 700MHz cellular frequency
band in North America.

General CDMA System Model

Information stream (transmission)

Source
coding

Source
decoding

channel
coding

channel
decoding

Interleaving
Interleaving

deinterleaving

Scrambling

Spreading

Unscrambling

deinterleaving

Despreading

Modulation

Demodulation

Radio
frequency
transmitting

Radio
frequency
receive

Information stream (reception)

Analog to Digital converter

In CDMA system the signal is sampled by 8KHZ (or 8 K sample per second) with
each sample using 13 bits with linear quantization, which gives an input data rate
of 104 Kbps.

Then it is broken into 20ms frames.

But because the air resource in a wireless system is very precious, a more
effective coding mode is needed to use a rate as low as possible in the case where
voice quality is guaranteed which is the function of source coding.

Source Coding

Source Coding in CDMA is done by Vocoder

vocoder is such a device the main principles of it are to extract some voice feature
parameters when a person speaks and transmit these feature parameters to the peer
party. Then, the peer party will recover the voice with these parameters based on the
promise between the two parties.
Meanwhile, the codes transmitted from the transmit end to the receive end and
describing voice feature parameters vary with:
speech activity
total bit error rate.

Source Coding

Where this Vocoder has two rates:

8K QCELP (Rate Set 1: 9600, 4800, 2400 and 120 bps)

13K QCELP (Rate Set 2: 14400, 7200, 3600 and 1800 bps)
The third voice code is the Extended Variable Rate Coder (EVRC) which has a
full rate output of 8Kbps in QCELP but has voce quality very closer to the
13Kbps in QCELP

Channel Encoding

Convolutional code or TURBO code is used while a channel is encoded

Constraint length = shift register number+1.
Encoding efficiency = the input bits number / the output symbols number.

Convolutional encoder

Interleaving
It can be seen from the figure that the data are read row by row into an
interleaver at the transmit end, read column by column out (this process is
called interleaving) and propagated after other modulation process.

Then, the data enter the interleaver at the receive end row by row and are
read out column by column (this process is called de-interleaving )

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5

6 7 8
1 1
6 7 8
2 2
6 7 8
3 3
6 7 8
4 4
6 7 8
51 52
6 7 8
6 6
6 7 8
7 7
6 7 8
8 8
The direction of the data stream
interleaving

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
2
3
4
53
6
7
8

1
2
3
4
54
6
7
8

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

1
2
3
4
56
6
7
8

1
2
3
4
57
6
7
8

1
2
3
4
58
6
7
8

Spreading

Walsh function of order 64

6 symbol
i =(D5D4D3D2D1D0)2

6464
matrix

wi64
0101..01

The forward channel is channelized by a Walsh code and the reverse channel by a
long code.
In the reverse, every 6 bits from the encoder output corresponds to one Walsh
code.That is to say, every 6 symbols are spread into 64 chips.
In the forward, each bit from the encoder output corresponds to a Walsh
code.That is to say,each symbol is spread into 64 chips.

Modulation
The forward channel modulated by means of QPSK.
The reverse channel by means of OQPSK can reduce the fluctuation range of modulated
signals.
For OQPSK As opposed to the data modulated by I pilot PN sequence, the data modulated
by Q pilot PN sequence has the delay of half a PN chip (406.901ns).
Thus, the maximum phase change of four-phase modulation is 90 degrees instead of 180degree mutation.

QPSK
OQPSK

Modulation-QPSK

I channel PN sequence
1.2288Mcps
I

I(t)

Baseband
filter

s(t)

Cos(2pfct)

A
Q

Baseband
filter

Q channel PN sequence
1.2288Mcps

Q(t)
Sin(2pfct)

1.2288Mcps: the PN chip rate of the system

After being spread, all the forward channels in the same carrier are
modulated by means of QPSK (OQPSK in the reverse), converted into
simulation signals and transmitted after clustering.

Channel structure in IS-95A

Introduction to channels

Forward and reverse channels

Types of channels (physical , logical)

Types of Channel in IS-95A

Forward channel

Forward Pilot Channel

Forward Sync Channel

Forward Paging Channel

Forward Traffic Channel (including power control subchannel)

Reverse channel

Access Channel

Reverse Traffic Channel

Pilot Channel

Used by the mobile station for initial system acquisition

Transmitted constantly by the base station
The same Short PN sequences are shared by all base stations

Provides tracking of:

Separation by phase provides for extremely high reuse within one CDMA
channel frequency
Acquisition by mobile stations by using :

Facilitates mobile station-assisted handoffs

Each base station is differentiated by a phase offset of 64 bits

Timing reference
Phase reference

Short duration of Pilot PN sequence

Uuencoded nature of pilot signal

Used to identify handoff candidates

Key factor in performing soft handoffs

Pilot Channel Generation

Pilot
Channel
(All 0s)

Walsh
Function 0

I PN
1.2288
Mcps

Q PN

The Walsh function zero spreading sequence is applied to the Pilot

The use of short PN sequence offsets allows for up to 512 (215/64) distinct Pilots per
CDMA channel ( frequency carrier)

The PN offset index value (0-511 inclusive) for a given pilot PN sequence is multiplied
by 64 to determine the actual offset

Example: 15 (offset index) x 64 = 960 PN chips

Result: The start of the pilot PN sequence will be delayed
960 chips x 0.8138 microseconds per chip = 781.25 microsecond

Pilot Channel Acquisition procedure

Pilot Channel
(Walsh Code 0)
0001

0001

0001

0001

0001

0001

What is pilot acquisition

Pilot Channel Acquisition procedure

The mobile station starts generating the I and Q PN short sequences by itself and
correlating them with the received composite signal at every possible offset.
In less than 15 seconds (typically 2 to 4 seconds) all possibilities (32,768) are
checked.
The mobile station remembers the offsets for which it gets the best correlation
(where the Eb/N0 is the best.)
The mobile station locks on the best pilot (at the offset that results in the best
Eb/N0 ), and identifies the pattern for defining the start of the short sequences
Now the mobile station is ready to start de-correlating the SYNCH channel with a
Walsh code.

Sync Channel

Used to provide essential system parameters

It used Walsh function number 32
Used during system acquisition stage
Bit rate is 1200 bps
Simplifies the acquisition of the Sync Channel once the Pilot
Channel has been acquired
Mobile Station re-synchronizes at the end of every call
Now the mobile enters the idle state

(Acquired Pilot)
Sync Channel

Sync. Message Parameters

System ID (SID) 16-bit unsigned integer identifying the system

Network ID (NID) 16-bit unsigned integer identifying the network

within the system (defined by the owner of the SID)

Pilot PN Sequence Offset Index (PILOT_PN) Set to the pilot PN

offset for the base station (in units of 64 chips), assigned by the
network planner

Long Code State (LC_STATE) Provides the mobile station with

the base station long code state at the time given by the SYS_TIME
field, generated dynamically

Sync. Message Parameters

System Time (SYS_TIME) GPS system-wide time as 320 ms after the end of the
last superframe containing any part of this message, minus the pilot PN offset, in units
of 80 ms, generated dynamically

Paging Channel Data Rate (PRAT) The data rate of the paging channel for this
system, determined by the network planner

00 if 9600 bps
01 if 4800 bps

CDMA Frequency Assignment (CDMA_FREQ)

Sync Channel Generation

Modulation
Symbols

Bits

Chips

Walsh Function 32

I PN

R = 1/2 K=9

1200 bps

Convolutional
Encoder and
Repetition

Block
4800 sps Interleaver 4800 sps

1.2288
Mcps

Q PN

Paging Channels

The Paging Channel uses Walsh function 1

Two rates are supported: 9600 and 4800 bps

The paging channel message:

System parameters message

Access parameters message
Neighbors list message
CDMA channels list message

The functions of a paging channel:

Paging mobile stations and responding access channels

Assigning traffic channel

Paging Channels Generation

Walsh
function
R = 1/2 K=9

19.2
Ksps

9600 bps
4800 bps

Convolutional
Encoder &
Repetition

Paging Channel
Address Mask

Scrambling

I PN

1.2288
Mcps

Block
Interleaving
19.2
Ksps

1.2288
Mcps
Long PN Code
Generator

Decimator

Q PN

CDMA Forward Traffic Channel

Used for the transmission of user and signaling information to a specific

mobile station during a call.

Maximum number of traffic channels: 64 minus one Pilot channel, one

Sync channel, and 1 - 7 Paging channel.

This leaves each CDMA frequency with at least 55 traffic

channels.
Unused paging channels can provide up to 6 additional channels.

Now we will talk about the generation of the traffic channel procedure
in details

Forward Traffic Channel

8 kb Vocoding Generation
bits

symbols

chips
I PN

CHANNEL ELEMENT
9600 bps
4800 bps
R =1/2,K=9 19.2
2400 bps
1200 bps
ksps
Convolutional
(Vocoder) Encoding and
Repetition

User Address
Mask
(ESN-based)

Block
Interleaving

1.2288
Long PN Code Mcps

Generation

Power
Control
Bit

Scrambling

Walsh
function
1.2288
Mcps

M
U
X

19.2
ksps

Decimator

Decimator

Q PN
800 Hz

Rate 1/2, k=9 Convolutional Encoding

Symbols generated as the information bits transit through the encoder, are related
to all the bits currently in the register.

Each information bit contributes to multiple symbols.

Pattern of inter-relationships helps detect and correct errors.

The length of shift register is called constraint (K=9) length.

Here, two symbols are generated for every bit input (Rate 1/2).

The longer the register, the better coding can correct bursty errors

Full Rate Block Interleave

Symbols are
Written In

24 Rows

16 Columns
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48

49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72

73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96

97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120

121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144

145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168

169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192

193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216

217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240

241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264

265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288

289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312

313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336

337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360

361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384

Symbols are
Read Out

The 384 modulation symbols in a frame are input into a 24 by 16 block interleave array and read
down by columns, from left to right

Adjacent symbols are now separated in time This separation combats the effect of fast fading

A burst of errors could effect the area in red above and after the frame is written into the
block de-interleave function at the mobile we see the errors are spread out instead of being in
consecutive order.

Data Scrambling

19.2 Ksps
Modulation
Symbols

Block
Interleaver

User Address
Mask (ESN)

Long
Code PN
Generator

19.2
Ksps

1.2288
Mcps

Decimator

19.2
Ksps

To Power
Control Mux

Divide
by 64

Every 64th PN chip is modulo-2 added to a symbol

Randomize transmitted data

Eliminates probability of Pilot Reuse Error

Effects of all 1s or 0s' traffic (impulse-like) is reduced as the stream of

ones or zeros will cause that the receiver may loss the synchronization
with the transmitter as there is any changes in transmitted data
Mobile might demodulate a distant cell with same PN offset

Power Control Sub-channel

Power Control
Bit (800 bps)
Data Scrambling

M
U
X

19.2 Ksps
from Block
Interleaver
1.2288 Mcps
User Long
Code

19.2
Ksps

Decimator

Decimator

Scrambled
Modulation
Symbol or
Power
Control Bit

800 bpS Mux

Timing

A power control sub-channel is transmitted continuously every 1.25ms (or 800HZ)

BTS instruct MS to change its power level by +1dB. A 0 power control bit
requests the MS to increase its power. A 1 power control bit instruct the MS to
decrease its power
Each power control bit has a bit time of two of data bit (for Rate set 1)
A puncturing technique: The 1/(64*24) long code is used to randomize the
position of the power control bit

Composite I and Q

Each channel card has a combiner and

works in a serial array to combine the I
and Q signals for all forward channels in a
partition sector or cell.
The base band I and Q signals for all
channel cards are sent to the CORE
module to be multiplexed together based
on the PN offset.
This ensures that a mobile station does
not mistakenly decode the signal from a
channel with the same Walsh code from
the wrong base station.

Walsh
Code

I PN Code
Q PN Code

Pilot
Channel
Walsh
Code
Sync
Channel
Walsh
Code
Paging
Channel(s)

Walsh
Code
Forward Traffic
Channel(s)

Composite
I
Composite
Q

Quadrature Phase Shift Key (QPSK) Modulation

Walsh
code
Every
Channel

: XOR

Q PN Code

: Analog sum

: Base band x Carrier

cos ( 2 fct )

Base band
filter

Base band
filter

Gain Control

I PN Code

sin (2 fct )

QPSK output = I cos ( 2 fc t ) + Q sin (2 fc t )

Reverse Traffic Channels

Used when a call is in progress to send:

Supports variable data rate operation for:

Voice traffic from the subscriber

Response to commands/queries from the base station
Requests to the base station

8 Kbps vocoder

Rate Set 1 - 9600, 4800, 2400 and 1200 bps

13 Kbps vocoder

Rate Set 2 - 14400, 7200, 3600, 1800 bps

Reverse Traffic Channels

9600 bps
4800 bps
2400 bps
1200 bps

I PN
(no offset)

R=1/3,K=9

1.2288

28.8
28.8
307.2
Mcps
Convolutional ksps
ksps Orthogonal kcps Data Burst
Block
Encoder &
Randomizer
Modulation
Interleaver
Repetition

1/2 PN
Chip
Delay
D

User Address
Mask

Long
PN Code
Generator

1.2288
Mcps

Q PN
(no offset)
Direct
Sequence
Spreading

Rate 1/3 Convolutional Encoder

Code Symbols
(OUTPUT)

g0

+
Information bits
(INPUT)

g1

Code Symbols
(OUTPUT)

+
g2

Code Symbols
(OUTPUT)

Block Interleaving

28.8 ksps
From Coding
& Symbol
Repetition

Input Array
(Normal
Sequence)
32 x 18

Output Array
(Reordered
Sequence)
32 x 18

28.8 ksps to
Orthogonal
Modulation

The 576 modulation symbols in a frame are input into a 32 by 18 block

interleave array read down by columns, from left to right

64-ary Orthogonal Modulation

44

35

Walsh Lookup Table

Walsh Chi p within a Walsh Function
1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6
01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 0 12 3 4 56 7 89 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 67 8 9 0 1 2 34 5 67 8 9 0 1 2 3

101100 100011

Symbols
64 Chip Pattern of
Walsh Code # 35

10001...11010

W
a
l
s
h
F
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
I
n
d
e
x

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63

00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0

0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001

0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001

0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110

0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01
0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01

0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0

0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0

00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1

0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001

For every six symbols in, 64 Walsh Chips are output

Six symbols are converted to a decimal number from 0-63

The Walsh code that corresponds to the decimal number becomes the output

0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110

0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110

0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01
0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01
0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01
0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01
0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
0 0 00
0 1 01
0 0 11
0 1 10
1 1 11
1 0 10
1 1 00
1 0 01

0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110

0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1
0 00 0
0 10 1
0 01 1
0 11 0
1 11 1
1 01 0
1 10 0
1 00 1

00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
00 0 0
01 0 1
00 1 1
01 1 0
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1
11 1 1
10 1 0
11 0 0
10 0 1

0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110
1111
1010
1100
1001
1111
1010
1100
1001
0000
0101
0011
0110

Direct Sequence Spreading

307.2
kcps

Data Burst
Randomizer

User Address
Mask

Long
Code PN
Generator

1.2288
Mcps

1.2288
Mcps

Output of the randomizer is direct sequence spread by the long code

The mobile station can use one of two unique long code masks:

A public long code mask based on the ESN

A private long code mask

To Quadrature
Spreading

Offset Quadrature Spreading & Baseband Filtering

RF Converters

I-Channel Pilot PN Sequence

1.2288 Mcps
I
From
Data Burst
Randomizer

cos( fct) t)
Cos(2f
c
2

1.2288
Mcps
PN chip
1.2288
Mcps

Baseband
Filter

PN

Baseband
D
Filter
1/2 PN Chip
Time Delay

Q
sin(2f
ct)
sin(2 fct)

The channel is spread by a pilot PN sequence with a zero offset

Baseband filtering ensures that the waveform is contained within the required frequency limits
Baseband signals converted to radio frequency (RF) in the 800 MHz or 1900 MHz range

Access Channels

Used by the mobile station to:

Has a fixed data rate of 4800 bps

Each Access Channel is associated with only one Paging Channel

Up to 32 access channels (0-31) are supported per Paging Channel

Message attempts are randomized to reduce probability of collision

Two message types:

Initiate communication with the base station

Respond to Paging Channel messages

A response message (in response to a base station message)

A request message (sent autonomously by the mobile station)

Access Channel Generation

I PN (No Offset)

Access Channel
Information
(88 bits/Frame)

4.8 kpbs

R = 1/3
1.2288
28.8
307.2 Mcps
28.8
ksps
Convolutional ksps
Orthogonal kcps
Block
Encoder &
Modulation
Interleaver
Repetition

1/2 PN
Chip
Delay
D

Access Channel
Long Code Mask

Long PN Code
Generator

1.2288
Mcps
Q PN (No Offset)
Direct
Sequence
Spreading

Summarization of Initialization of the Mobile Station

Search for the CDMA carrier, acquire the pilot channel and synchronize the short code.

Receive the synchronous channel message containing the LC_STATE, SYS_TIME, P_RAT.

Acquire timing and synchronize with the system.

Monitor the paging channel and receive the system message.

The mobile station can register and be taken as the calling party or called party.

Difference between IS95A and IS-95B

What is IS95B
IS-95B is based on and compatible completely with IS-95A.
The main difference :

Increase the supplemental code channels to enhance the data rate. A

single user can be assigned less than 8 code channels (1 FCH + 7
SCCH) the highest data rate being 76.8 (rate set 1) / 115.2kbps (rate
set 2).
Soft handoff with relative thresholds
MS-aided hard handoff

Overview of CDMA 1X

Channel bandwidth:
1.23MHz
Maximum rate
supported:307.2kbps
Voice code:
8K/13K
QCELP 8K EVRC

Completely compatible IS-95A/B

Adding multiple channels to
improve the system performance

Power control:
forward/reverse
power control
Forward transmit
diversity mode:
OTD, STS

CDMA
20001X

Demodulation
mode: pilot-aided
coherent
demodulation

Channel code:
Convolutional code
and TURBO code

Modulation mode
Reverse HPSK:
Forward QPSK

CDMA2000 1x
Introduction to CDMA2000 1x

Migration from IS95A to CDMA2000x

New features in CDMA2000x

Turbo Code

Use a Turbo code during the transmission of a large data packet.

Characteristics of the Turbo code:

The input information shall be encoded twice and the two output codes can
exchange information with each other during decoding.

The symbol is protected not only by the neighborhood check

bits, but by the other check bits.

The performance of a Turbo code is superior to that of a convolutional

code.

Variable Walsh Codes

The different Walsh codes

corresponding to different data rates
W08 =00000000
W04 =0000
64

W48 =00001111

W02 =00

W28 =00110011

W24 =0011

W01 =0

32

W68 =00111100
W18 =01010101

W14 =0101
W58 =01011010

16

W38 =01100110

8
4
2

9600 19200 38400

76800 153600 307200 614400

Data rate -bps-

W12 =01
W34 =0110

W78 =01101001

( W016 ,W816)
( W416 ,W1216 )
( W216 ,W1416 )
( W616 ,W1416 )
( W116,W916 )
( W516 ,W1316 )
( W316 ,W1116 )
( W716,W1516 )

Reverse HPSK Modulation

The CDMA 1X adopts forward QPSK modulation like the IS-95 system, but
adopts HPSK modulation in the reverse.

HPSK ( Hybrid PSK ), namely, OCQPSK ( Orthogonal Complex QPSK ). The

functions are as follows:

Reduce the linear requirement for the power amplification of a

mobile station.

Transmission Diversity

The forward transmission diversity types of CDMA2000 1X

TD(Transmit Diversity)
OTD(Orthogonal Transmit Diversity)
The data stream is divided into two parts, which will
be spread by the orthogonal code sequence.
STS(Space Time Spreading)
All the forward code channels are transmitted on
the multi-antennas.
Spread with the supplementarity Walsh code or with
pseudo-randomization code.
Non-TD

Transmission Diversity

Data stream 1

Restoring data stream

Antenna 1
Path 1

Data stream
Transmission
diversity
processing

Path 2
Antenna 2

Data stream 2
OTD/STS

The Transmission Diversity Technology enhances the receive performance of a terminal.

advantages of the CDMA20001x Standards

Increased mobile standby battery life (via Quick Paging Channel)

Total backward compatibility to reuse switch and call processing features

No need to change any RF infrastructure

2-3 dB better coverage

High speed packet data capabilities

CDMA 2000 1XRtt

New Channel Structure

CDMA2000 1x Rtt Channel

Forward Supplemental Channel (F-SCH)

Assigned for high-speed packet data (>9.6 kbps) in the forward direction; (FCH is
always assigned to each call)
Up to 2 F-SCH can be assigned to a single mobile

SCH cannot exist without having a fundamental channel established

F-SCH supports Walsh code lengths of 4 - 1024 depending on data rate and chip
rate

SCH-1

File transfer at 144 kbps

Mobile 1
FCH

Voice, power control and link continuity

Reverse Supplemental Channel (R-SCH)

Used for high-speed packet data (>9.6 kbps)

Difference between F-SCH and R-SCH is in Walsh code based spreading

F-SCH supports Walsh code lengths of 4 to 128 (1xRTT) or 1024

(3xRTT) depending on data rate and chip rate
R-SCH uses either a 2-digit or 4-digit Walsh code; rate matching done
by repetition of encoded and interleaved symbols

Walsh code allocation sequence is pre-determined and common

to all mobiles
Users are differentiated using long PN code with user mask

Reverse Pilot Channel (R-PICH)

Mobile transmits well-known pattern (pilot)

Allows base station to do timing corrections without having to guess where

mobile is (in search window)

Mobile can transmit at lower power, reducing interference to others

Quick Paging Channel (F-QPCH)

More efficient monitoring of paging channel by mobile, enhancement to slotted

paging
Mobile monitors QPCH to determine if there is a page forthcoming on paging
channel in its slot (looks at 1-bit paging indicator)
If no flag, then mobile goes back to sleep; if flag, then mobile monitors
appropriate slot and decodes general page message
Without QPCH, mobile must monitor regular paging channel slot and decode
several fields to determine whether page is for it or not; this drains mobile
batteries quickly

The main purpose of QPCH is to save mobile battery life.

F-CPCCH

Common Power Control Channel tightly controls power of mobiles accessing

the system using R-EACH or RCCCH

One CPCCH can transmit power control data for up to 24

reverse channels (each is either an R-EACH or an RCCCH) 12 channels of

power control on the I channel, 12 on the Q channel

The CPCCH increases system capacity by better control of mobile power

during access mode

F-BCH and F-CCCH

Broadcast Channel F-BCH

40 ms frames with slots of 40, 80, or 160 ms
Carries only Overhead messages transmitted at 19.2, 9.6, or 4.8 kbps

Common Control Channel

Uses 20, 10, or 5 ms frames
Transmits signaling messages at 9.6, 19.2, or 38.4 kbps
Handles all other signaling directed to mobiles
Free to operate at higher data rates to improve throughput

F-FACH

What is F-CACH

F-CACH modes:
Power Controlled access mode
F-CACH provides fast acknowledgments to mobiles during access for
power control
Reservation Access Mode
Transmits an abbreviated address for each mobile that is allowed to
transmit on the R-CCC . This reduces collisions during the access
process

Course Outlines

Introduction to mobile communication

CDMA network architecture
CDMA network interfaces
CDMA principles
Transmission problems
CDMA air interface
CDMA key technologies
CDMA Traffic Cases

CDMA key technologies

Power control
Handoff

Why Power Control?

All CDMA users occupy the same

frequency at the same time! Frequency
and time are not used as discriminators.

CDMA operates by using CODES to

discriminate between users.

CDMA interference comes mainly from

nearby users

Each user is a small voice in a roaring

crowd -- but with a uniquely recoverable
code.

Transmit power on all users must be

tightly controlled so their signals reach
the base station at the same signal level
and at the absolute minimum power level
necessary to ensure acceptable service
quality

Figure of Merit: Eb/No

(energy per chip [bit] /
interference [noise] spectral density)

CDMA: Eb/No ~6to7 dB

Reverse Open Loop

Reverse Open Loop

Power Control

Mobile

BTS

The mobile station makes a coarse initial estimation of the required transmit power,
based upon the total received power.

Problems with Reverse Open Loop Power Control:

Assumes same exact path loss in both directions; therefore, cannot

account for asymmetrical path loss
Estimates are based on total power received; therefore the power
received from other cell sites by mobile station introduces inaccuracies

Reverse Closed Loop Power Control

Mobile

BTS
Reverse Closed Loop
Power Control

or

Signal Strength
Measurement

Setpoint

Compensates for asymmetries between the forward and reverse paths

Consists of power up (0) & power down (1) commands sent to the mobile stations, based
upon their signal strength measured at the Base Station and compared to a specified
threshold

Each command requests a 1dB increase or decrease of the mobile station transmit power

Transmitted 800 times per second, always at full power

Allows to compensate for the effects of fast fading

Reverse Outer Loop Power Control

Mobile

BTS
Reverse Closed Loop
Power Control

BSC
or
Signal Strength
Measurement

Setpoint

Reverse Outer
Loop Power
Control

Most gradual form of reverse link power control

FER

Set point is varied according to the FER on the Reverse Traffic Channel
(determined at the Base Station Controller)
Sampled at a rate of 50 frames per second (20 ms / frame)
Set point adjusted every 1-2 seconds

Forward Traffic Channel Power Control

Mobile

BTS

BSC
Adjust Fwd.
power

FER
Forward Link Power Control

The base station slowly decreases power to each mobile station.

As the FER (determined at the mobile station) increases, the mobile station
requests a Forward Traffic Channel power increase.

Summary of All Power Control Mechanisms

Reverse Open Loop

Power Control

Mobile

BTS
Reverse Closed Loop
Power Control

FER

BSC
or

Signal Strength
Measurement

Setpoint

Adjust Fwd.
power
Reverse Outer
Loop Power
Control

FER

Forward Link Power Control

All types of power control work together to minimizes power consumption at the
mobile stations, and increases the overall capacity of the system transmit power.

Handoffs

Handoff is the process by which a mobile station maintains communications

with the Mobile Telephone Switching center(MSC), when traveling from
the coverage area of one base station to that of another.

Handoffs keep the call established during the following conditions:

Subscriber crosses the boundaries of a cell

Subscriber experiences noise or other interference above a
specified threshold
A base station component experiences an out-of-service
condition during a call

CDMA Handoffs
CDMA
Cell Site
B

Cell Site
A

CDMA Handoffs

Cell Site
B

Make-before-break
Directed by the mobile not the base station
Undetectable by user
Improves call quality

Handoffs consist of the following phases:

Initiation (trigger), Target Selection, and Completion (execution)

Cell Site
A

CDMA Handoffs (cont.)

While in the
Idle State

Idle Handoff

Soft Handoff
Softer Handoff
During
a Call

Inter-System Soft Handoff

CDMA-to-CDMA Handoff
CDMA-to-Analog Handoff

Soft Handoff
PSTN

Cell Site
A

MTX

Cell Site
B

B
S
C

Soft Handoff: the mobile station starts communications with a target

base station without interrupting communications with the current
serving base station.
Can involve up to three cells simultaneously and use all signals

Mobile station combines the frames from each cell

Softer Handoff

Handoff is between sectors of the same cell

Communications are maintained across both sectors until the mobile
station transition has completed
May happen frequently
MSC is aware but does not participate
All activities are managed by the cell site
Signals received at both sectors can be combined for improved quality

alpha
beta
gamma

Inter-System Soft Handoffs

T1 or E1 Links
TIA/EIA-41D

MSC

MSC

BSC

BSC
T1 or E1 Links

CIS
AA
f1
f1
BB
f1
f1
CC
f1
f1

CDMA Soft Handoff

DD
f1
f1
EE
f1
f1
FF
f1
f1

CIS

UU
f1
f1
VV
f1
f1
W
W
f1
f1

ISSHO

XX
f1
f1
YY
f1
f1
ZZ
f1
f1

CDMA Hard Handoff

Mobile Station starts communications with a new cell controlled by a

different BSC while still communicating with the cell controlled by the
source BSC
Soft Handoffs over Hard Handoffs
Fewer border cell

Hard Handoff
PSTN
PSTN
MSC

MSC

BSC

BSC

A
(1)

B
(2)

MSC
T1 or E1 Links
TIA/EIA-41D

BSC

Between cells operating on different frequencies

Between cells that could be on the same frequency, but which are subordinated to different
MSC

Pilot Sets
Pilot Sets
1. Active
2. Candidate
3. Neighbor
4. Remaining

Pilot sets:
Active Set: Pilots associated with the forward traffic channels
assigned to the mobile station (max 6 pilots)
Candidate Set: Pilots not currently in the Active Set, but received by
the mobile with sufficient strength to indicate that the corresponding
Traffic Channels can be successfully demodulated (max 5 pilots)
Neighbor Set: Pilots not currently on the Active or Candidate Sets,
that are likely handoff candidates (at least 20 pilots)
Remaining Set: All other possible pilots in the current system on the
current CDMA frequency assignment

All pilots in a set have the same frequency assignment

These sets can be updated during handoff by the base station

PilotSetInitialization
(While in the Idle or in an Active Call)

Active

Pilot whose Paging Channel

is being monitored or
associated with the assigned
Forward Traffic Channel

Candidate

Empty

Neighbor

Pilots specified in the most

recently received Extended
Neighbor List Message

Remaining

Any other possible pilot

in the system

(AGE set at NGHBR_MAX_AGE)

PilotSetMaintenance
(While in an Active Call)

Active

Pilots listed the most

recently received Extended
Handoff Direction Msg

Candidate

Pilots whose strength

exceeds T_ADD

Neighbor

Remaining

Pilots specified in the most

recently received Neighbor
List Update Message
(or whose AGE is still less
than NGHBR_MAX_AGE)

Any other possible pilot

in the system

Pilot Strength Measurement Message (PSMM)

A
B
Timing
C
Pilot Channel

nnels
a
h
C
Traffic
PSMM

The Pilot Strength Measurement Message is used by the mobile station to

direct the base station in the handoff process.
Mobile station reports the strength of the pilots associated with forward
traffic channels currently being demodulated (and whether it would like to
continue to receive traffic from them), as well as pilots from the neighbor and
remaining list which are being received with sufficient strength so that
traffic could be demodulated from them successfully.

Pilot Search Windows

Search Window for pilots in the Active and Candidate Set:

SRCH_WIN_A
Earliest arriving usable multipath component of the pilot

Search Window for pilots in the Neighbor Set:

SRCH_WIN_N
pilot PN offset

Search Window for pilots in the Remaining Set:

SRCH_WIN_R
pilot PN offset

A search window is a range of PN offsets (in chips) where the mobile station
searches for usable multipath components of the pilots in a set

Usable means that multipath components can be used for

demodulation of an associated traffic channel

Soft Handoff Signaling

PSMM sent (request to add) ,

Pilot added to Candidate Set

EHOD message received, Pilot Added to Active Set,

EHOC message sent, NLU message received

Pilot
Strength

Pilot strength drops below T_DROP,

Drop Timer started

Pilot Strength
exceeds T_ADD

Drop Timer expires

T_ADD

PSMM Sent (request to remove)

T_DROP

EHOD message received,

Pilot Dropped into Neighbor Set,
EHOC message sent,
NLU message received

T_TDROP

Time
(1)(2)

(3)

T_ADD: pilot detection threshold

T_DROP: pilot drop threshold
T_TDROP: drop timer value

(4) (5)(6) (7)

Prevents unnecessary transmissions of PSMM when a mobile station

experiences a fade

Course Outlines

Introduction to mobile communication

CDMA network architecture
CDMA network interfaces
CDMA principles
Transmission problems
CDMA air interface
CDMA key technologies
CDMA Traffic Cases

Thanks!