Mississippi Valley Type (MVT) ore deposits are part of a

spectrum of deposits that form during the evolution of a

sedimentary basin. They are defined as ores of the
minerals galena and sphalerite with associated barite
and fluorite.

Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) lead-zinc deposits are a

varied family of epigenetic ore deposits that form
predominantly in dolostone and in which lead and zinc
are the major commodities

The ores are stratabound

Most are found in rocks of Cambrian and Ordovician,

Devonian and Carboniferous, and Triassic ages.

Deposits within a district have similar geological and

geochemical attributes and ore controls; whereas
individual districts can be quite distinct from one another

Ore controls typically are district-specific; examples

include shale edges (depositional margins of shale
units), limestone-dolostone transitions, reef complexes,
solution collapse breccias, faults, and basement
topography. Most MVT ore districts are the product of
regional or sub-continental scale hydrological processes

Some of the better known and studied districts are:

a) Tri-state district-southwest Missouri-OklahomaKansas
b) Central and eastern Tennessee
c) Wisconsin area of the Upper Mississippi
d) Pine Point and Polaris-NWT
e) English Pennies, Ireland, and the Eastern Alps.

Deposit geology

The most important characteristics of MVT lead-zinc

deposits (Leach and Sangster, 1993) are:
(1) most deposits are in dolostone, less
commonly in limestone or sandstone,
(2) ore is epigenetic and stratabound,
(3) deposits are not associated with
igneous activity,
(4) deposits are at shallow depths at
flanks of basins,

(5) deposits are in platform carbonate sequences,

located either in relatively undeformed rocks
bordering foredeeps or in foreland thrust belts,
(6) most deposits are in districts that cover
hundreds of square kilometers; a number of districts
may even form metallogenic provinces,
(7) deposits form districts that are localized by
geologic features, including breccias, depositional
margins of shale units (shale edges), facies tracts,
faults, and basement highs that permit upward
migration of ore fluids,

(8) ore deposition temperatures are low (50oC to

200oC), but typically higher than those attributable to
local basement-controlled thermal gradients; districts
are commonly in thermal equilibrium with respect to
surrounding host rocks,
(9) deposits are mineralogically simple; dominant
minerals are sphalerite, galena, pyrite, marcasite,
dolomite, calcite, and quartz,
(10) associated alteration consists mainly of
dolomitization, brecciation, host-rock dissolution,
dissolution/crystallization of feldspar and clay,

and

(11) evidence of carbonate host rock dissolution,

expressed as slumping, collapse, brecciation, or
some combination of these, is common

(12) ore fluids were dense basinal brines,

typically containing 10 to 30 weight percent salts,
(13) isotopic data indicate crustal sources for both
metal and reduced sulfur,
(14) sulfide mineral textures are extremely varied;
ore ranges from coarsely crystalline to finegrained, massive to disseminated.

Host rocks

Most MVT deposits are hosted by dolostone; less

important hosts are limestone and sandstone.

Exploration geophysics

Geophysical exploration has been used successfully in

some districts to map known geologic ore controls
(Guinnessand others, 1983). For example, airborne
magnetic surveys have been used in Southeast
Missouri to define buried Precambrian topography, an
important control on the localization of some ore
(Allingham, 1966; Cordell, 1979;Cordell and Knepper,
1987)

Surrounding geologic terrane

MVT deposits commonly are at shallow depths along

basin flanks. They form in platform carbonate
sequences located either in relatively undeformed rocks
bordering foredeeps or in foreland thrust belts. Some
deposits are associated with salt diapir

Alteration:

Hydrothermal alteration associated with the carbonate

rocks that host the MVT deposits is typically
represented by:
1) Dissolution of carbonate rocks which included
hydrothermal brecciation and dissolving of the rocks
by acidic fluids.
2) Dolotimization-hydrothermal dolomite, which
replaces the host limestone or occurs as cement in
open space areas such as breccia zones or karst
areas. Dolotimization increases the rocks porosity.

3) Silicification-this is a minor alteration type and its

intensity is dependent on the temperature of the
hydrothermal fluids along with the amount of cooling
that occurred during ore formation. Silicification is
greater the hotter the system (>2000C)

Nature of ore

MVT ore is extremely varied in character and form. Ore

bodies range from massive replacement zones to open
space fillings of fractures and breccias to disseminated
clusters of crystals that occupy intergranular pore
space.

Most MVT deposits show clear evidence that open

space deposition was accompanied by dissolution and
replacement of host carbonate rocks.

Deposit trace element geochemistry

Trace and minor element suites and abundances vary

between districts; the trace element content of minerals
fromdifferent paragenetic stages within a district often
display significant variation

Ore and gangue mineralogy and zonation

Most MVT deposits have simple mineral assemblages

that consist of galena, sphalerite, pyrite, and marcasite.
The most important environmental consideration for
MVT deposits may be their iron sulfide content.

Chalcopyrite, bornite, and other copper sulfide minerals

are abundant in some districts.

The most abundant gangue mineral is hydrothermal

dolomite, which may form alteration halos around MVT
ore. Barite and fluorite are abundant gangue minerals in
some districts. Other common gangue minerals include
calcite and quartz.

Mineral characteristics

Sulfide mineral textures are extremely varied; ore

ranges from coarsely crystalline to fine-grained,
massive to disseminated.

Topography, physiography

Most MVT deposits are located in flat-lying carbonate

sequences. However, some deposits are located in
thrust andfold belts

Hydrology

The formation of MVT deposits requires enormous

quantities of fluid; therefore, most districts have some
spatialconnection to major aquifers, karst systems, and
faulted ground with high fluid transmissivity.

Mining and milling methods

Present mining is generally by underground room-and

pillar-or by longwall methods. Ore is processed by
pulverizingand flotation, concentrates are now generally
shipped to smelters outside mining districts.

Origin:

Putting all the above together it turns out the formation

of MVT deposits is not much different than that of the
movement and localization of oil; that is the source
material for oil formation occurs in off-shore shale and
sand beds and, with compaction of these, oil, gas and
water migrate up dip and into a variety of traps
important among which are permeable reef complexes.

The idea for the origin of MVT deposits is similar. It is

thought that the base metal ions are initially fixed in off
shore sediments in foreland basins by absorbtion onto
clays and organic matter, and also by precipitation
directly as sulfides in black shales. Upon burial and
compaction the metals are leached into, or dissolved by,
the pore space brines (connate sea water) and start to
migrate up dip and/or along suitable structures (normal
compressive faults).

Brines of the oil-field type are known to develop high

salinities similar to those found in the MVT fluid
inclusions. Oil field brines can also be rich is Zn and Pb;
their ph is between 4 and 6 and metal content can reach
several hundred parts per million.

During diagenesis and tectonism the large volume of

connate pore fluid is heated up and migrates up dip
along major faults . Where the hydrothermal fluid
encounters local traps (reefs, karst, facies changes,
etc.) it precipitates out metals as sulfides

CONCLUSIONS

Within the class of hydrothermal ore deposits, MVT

deposits are paradoxical in that they are at the same
time the simplest and the most complex.

The following list of facts and ideas, based on the

working hypothesis, contains implications for exploration
strategy
1. Large, deep basins: the sorts of processes discussed
can only take place in rather large sedimentary basins
and MVT deposits generally occur towards the edge of
these

2. Carbonates: within the basins, it is a fact that

carbonates usually form the host rocks for MVT
deposits
3. Evaporites: the known presence of evaporite beds
somewhere in the basin must be regarded as a
favourable sign
4. Cavities: not enough stress has been laid on the
importance of the existence of cavities prior to ore
deposition. In many districts, it can be shown that the
cavities existed before the ore came in

5. Unconformities: in carbonate units, unconformities

create the possibility for Karst structures, solution
breccias and so on, which are ways of creating
openings and cavities
6. Dolomitization: this is so often associated with MVT
ore that it must be regarded as a promising if not a very
diagnostic sign