Basics of

Networking

Network

Interconnection of two or more devices is called as a

network.

The communication between two or more

interconnected devices is called networking.

An internetwork is a connection of two or more

networks.

Internetworking means communication between

different networks.

Types of Networks

LAN
Local Area Networks are used to connect networking
devices that are in a very close geographic area such as
a floor of a building, a building itself or within a
campus.

MAN
Metropolitan Area Network are used to connect
networking devices that may span around the entire
city.

WAN
Wide Area Networks which connects two or more LANs
present at different geographical locations.

LAN
Banjara
Banjara Hills
Hills

HUB
HUB

LAN
LAN

MAN
Banjara
Banjara Hills
Hills

HUB
HUB

Ameerpet
Ameerpet

LAN
LAN

LAN
LAN
MAN
MAN

SWITCH
SWITCH

WAN

www.cms.com
www.cms.com

vijayawada
vijayawada

Hyderabad
Hyderabad

WAN
WAN

Router
Router
HUB
HUB

LAN
LAN

Router
Router

SWITCH
SWITCH

LAN
LAN

Basic
requirements
network

to

form

NIC (Network interface card) also called as LAN card

Media

Networking devices (Hub, Switch, Router, etc.)

Protocols

Logical Address (IP address)

NIC(Network Interface Card)

NIC is the interface between the computer and the

network

It is also known as the Lan card or Ethernet card

Ethernet cards have a unique 48 bit address called as

MAC (Media access control) address
MAC address is also called as Physical address or hardware
address
The 48 bit MAC address is represented as 12 Hexa-decimal
digits
Example: 0 0 1 6 . D 3 F C . 6 0 3 F

Network cards are available in different speeds

Ethernet (10 Mbps)
Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)

Media

The purpose of the media is to transport bits from one

machine to another.

Media

Guided

Co-axial Twisted pair Fiber

UTP

STP

Unguided

Infrared

RF

Media

Co-axial cable
UTP Cable

Fiber optic

Networking devices
The various types of networking devices are:

Repeater
Hub
Bridge
Switch
Router

Hub / Repeater
It is not an Intelligent Device.
It works with bits.
Uses broadcast for communication.
Bandwidth is shared.
Half-duplex communication.

Functions of HUB

HUB
HUB

Data

Data

Functions of HUB

Data

HUB
HUB

Data

Data

Switch
It is an Intelligent device.
It maintains MAC address table (hardware
address).
Each port of the switch has fixed bandwidth.
It works with Flooding and Unicast.
Supports full duplex communication

Functions of a Switch
MAC Address Learning
Forwarding

Functions of Switch

1
2

4 5 6

8
7

Functions of Switch

MAC ADDRESS TABLE

Source MAC
001C.C01A.0002
Data
001C.C01A.0002
1
DATA
Destination MAC 8
2
7
001C.C01A.0004
3
4 5 6
001C.C01A.0004

Source MAC
001C.C01A.0002
S Data
DATA
Destination MAC
001C.C01A.0004
001C-C01A-0002

D
001C-C01A-0004

PORT
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

MACADDRESS
001C-C01A-0002

Functions of Switch

MAC ADDRESS TABLE

1
2

PORT
3

4 5 6

8
7

Fa0/1
Fa0/2

Fa0/3

001C-C01A-0002

Fa0/4
Data

Fa0/5

001C-C01A-0004

Fa0/6

MACADDRESS

Fa0/7
Fa0/8

001C-C01A0002

001C-C01A-0004

Difference between Bridge and

Switch
Bridge
Bridges are
software based
Bridges have less
number of ports
Generally used for
connecting two
different topology
(Segment)

Switch
Switches are
hardware based
Switches have more
ports
Generally used for
connecting single
topology (Segment)

Router
It is an Intelligent device
It works with Logical Addressing (i.e. IP, IPX,
AppleTalk)
It works with Fixed bandwidth

Interconnecting Network Devices

PC

HUB

Bridge Switch Router

Cross
Cable

Straight

Cross
Cable

Straight

Cross
Cable

Straight

Cross
Cable

Straight

Cross

Straight

Bridge

Cross
Cable

Straight

Cross
Cable

Straight

Cross
Cable

Switch

Straight

Cross

Straight

Cross
Cable

Straight

Router

Cross
Cable

Straight

Cross
Cable

Straight

Cross
Cable

PC
HUB

Topology
Topology is a physical layout of the systems connected in
a network.
Different types of topology are:

Bus

Ring

Mesh

Star

Bus Topology

In bus topology all devices are connected to a single

cable or backbone.

It supports half duplex communication.

A break at any point along the backbone will result in

total network failure.

Ring Topology

In ring topology each computer or device is connected

to its neighbor forming a loop.
Failure of a single device or a break anywhere in the
cable causes the full network to stop communicating

Mesh Topology

In mesh topology each device is directly connected to

all other devices

The disadvantage is the number of NICs required on

each device and the complex cabling.

Star Topology

The most commonly used topology

It consist of one centralized device which can be either
a switch or a hub.
The devices connect to the various ports on the
centralized devices.

HUB/Switch
HUB/Switch

IP ADDRESS
ASSIGNMENT

IP Address

IP Address is a Logical Address

It is a Network Layer address (Layer 3)

Two Versions of IP:

IP version 4 is a 32 bit address
IP version 6 is a 128 bit address

IP version 4

Bit is represent by 0 or 1 (i.e. Binary)

IP address in binary form (32 bits):

01010101000001011011111100000001

32 bits are divided into 4 Octets:

First Octet

Second Octet

01010101.
00000001

Third Octet

00000101.

IP address in decimal form:

85.5.191.1

Forth Octet

10111111.

IPv4 address range

Taking Example for First Octet :
Total 8 bits, Value will be 0s and 1s
i.e. 2 = 256 combination
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 = 1
Total IP Address Range
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 2
0.0.0.0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 = 3
to
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 4
255.255.255.255

= 255

IP Address Classification

IP Addresses are divided into 5 Classes

CLASS A

CLASS B

CLASS C

CLASS D

Reserved for Multicasting

CLASS E

Reserved for Research &

Development

Used in LAN & WAN

Priority Bit

Priority Bit is used for IP Address classification.

Most significant bit(s) from the first octet are selected

for Priority Bit(s).

Class A priority bit is

Class B priority bits are

10

Class C priority bits are

110

Class D priority bits are

1110

Class E priority bits are

1111

Class A Range

In Class A : First bit of the first octet is reserved as

priority bit, bit value is zero.
0xxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 = 1
Class A Range
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 2
0 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 = 3
127.255.255.255
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 4
Exception
0.X.X.X and 127.X.X.X
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 127
networks are reserved

Class B Range

In Class B : First two bits of the first octet are reserved

as priority bits, bit value as 10.
10xxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxx
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 128
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 = 129
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 130
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 = 131
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 132 Class B Range
128 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 191
191 . 255 . 255 .255

Class C Range

In Class C : First three bits of the first octet are

reserved as priority bits, bit value as 110.
110xxxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxx
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 192
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 = 193
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 194
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 = 195
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 = 196 Class C Range
192 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 = 223
223 . 255 . 255 .255

Class D Range

In Class D : First four bits of the first octet are reserved

as priority bits, bit value as 1110.
1110xxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxx
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 = 224
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 = 225
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 = 226
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 = 227
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 = 228 Class D Range
224 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 = 239
239 . 255 . 255 .255

Class E Range

In Class E : First four bits of the first octet are reserved

as priority bits, bit value as 1111.
1111xxxx. xxxxxxxx. xxxxxxxx. Xxxxxxxx
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 = 240
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 = 241
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 = 242
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 = 243
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 = 244 Class E Range
240 . 0 . 0 . 0 to
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 255
255 . 255 . 255 .255

Octet Format

IP address is divided into Network & Host Portion

CLASS A is written as

N.H.H.H

CLASS B is written as

N.N.H.H

CLASS C is written as

N.N.N.H

CLASS A No. Networks & Hosts

Class A Octet Format is N . H . H . H

Network bits : 8
Host bits : 24
No. of Networks
= 2no of network bits Priority bit
= 28-1 (-1 is Priority Bit for Class A)
= 27
= 128 2 (-2 is for 0 & 127 Network)
= 126 Networks
No. of Host
= 2no of host bits -2
= 224 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 16777216 - 2
= 16777214 Hosts/Network

CLASS B No. Networks & Hosts

Class B Octet Format is N . N . H . H

Network bits : 16
Host bits : 16
No. of Networks
= 2no of network bits Priority bit
= 216-2 (-2 is Priority Bit for Class B)
= 214
= 16384 Networks
No. of Host
= 2no of host bits -2
= 216 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 65536 - 2
= 65534 Hosts/Network

CLASS C No. Networks & Hosts

Class C Octet Format is N . N . N . H

Network bits : 24
Host bits : 8
No. of Networks
=
2no of network bits Priority bit
= 224-3 (-3 is Priority Bit for Class C)
= 221
= 2097152 Networks
No. of Host
= 2no of host bits -2
= 28 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 256 - 2
= 254 Hosts/Network

Network & Broadcast Address

Network address: IP address with all bits as ZERO in

the host portion.

Broadcast address: IP address with all bits as ONES in

the host portion.

Valid IP Addresses lie between the Network Address

and the Broadcast Address.

Only Valid IP Addresses are assigned to hosts/clients

Example - Class A

Class A : N.H.H.H

Network Address :
0xxxxxxx.00000000.00000000.00000000
Broadcast Address :
0 x x x x xClass
x x . 1A1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
10.0.0.0
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.2
10.0.0.3

10.255.255.254
10.255.255.255

Network Address

Valid IP Addresses

Broadcast Address

Example - Class B

Class B : N.N.H.H

Network Address :
10xxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.00000000.00000000
Broadcast Address :
1 0 x x x xClass
x x . xBx x x x x x x . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
172.16.0.0
172.16.0.1
172.16.0.2
172.16.0.3
172.16.255.254
172.16.255.255

Network Address

Valid IP Addresses

Broadcast Address

Example - Class C

Class C : N.N.N.H

Network Address :
110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.00000000
Class
C
Broadcast
Address
:
1 1 0 x x x192.168.1.0
x x . x x x x x x x x . x x x xNetwork
x x x x . 1Address
1111111
192.168.1.1
192.168.1.2
192.168.1.3
Valid IP Addresses

192.168.1.254
192.168.1.255

Broadcast Address

Private IP Address

There are certain addresses in each class of IP address

that are reserved for Private Networks. These
addresses are called private addresses.
These addresses are not Routable (or) valid on
Internet.
Class A
10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
Class B
172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
Class C
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

Subnet Mask

Subnet Mask differentiates the Network and Host

portions of an IP address

Represented with all 1s in the network portion and

with all 0s in the host portion.

Subnet Mask - Examples

Class A : N.H.H.H
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
Default Subnet Mask for Class A is 255.0.0.0
Class B : N.N.H.H
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
Default Subnet Mask for Class B is 255.255.0.0
Class C : N.N.N.H
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Default Subnet Mask for Class C is 255.255.255.0

How Subnet Mask Works ?

IP Address : 192.168.1.1
Subnet Mask
: 255.255.255.0
ANDING PROCESS :
192.168.1.1 = 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001
255.255.255.0
=
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
=======================================
===========
192.168.1.0 = 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000
=======================================
===========
The output of an AND table is 1 if both its inputs are 1.
For all other possible inputs the output is 0.

SUBNETTING

Subnetting

Creating Multiple independent Networks from a Single

Network.

Converting Host bits into Network Bits

i.e. Converting 0s into 1s

Subnetting can be performed in two ways.

FLSM (Fixed Length Subnet Mask)
VLSM (Variable Length subnet mask)

Subnetting can be done based on requirement .

Number of Networks required?
Number of Hosts required?

Scenario for subnetting

CMS Technologies is having 100 PCs

Which IP address Class is preferred for the network ?

Answer : Class C.

In CMS Technologies there are 2 Departments with 50

PCs each
CMS Technologies 192.168.1.0/24

MCSE

192.168.1.1 to
192.168.1.50

CISCO

192.168.1.51 to
192.168.1.100

Scenario for subnetting

HUB
HUB

LAN
LAN

Scenario for subnetting

192.168.1.10
192.168.1.20

192.168.1.60

192.168.1.30

192.168.1.70
HUB
HUB

192.168.1.40

LAN
LAN

192.168.1.80

192.168.1.50

192.168.1.90
192.168.1.100

Scenario (continued)

Administrators Requirement :
Inter-department communication should not be
possible ?
Solution.
Allocate a different Network to each Department
i.e.

MCSE

CISCO

192.168.1.1 to
192.168.1.50
192.168.2.1 to
192.168.2.50

Scenario for subnetting

HUB
HUB

LAN
LAN

Scenario for subnetting

192.168.1.1
192.168.1.2

192.168.2.1

192.168.1.3

192.168.2.2
HUB
HUB

192.168.1.4

LAN
LAN

192.168.2.3

192.168.1.50

192.168.2.4
192.168.2.50

Main Aim of Subnetting

Problem with the previous Scenario is :-

Wastage of IP addresses if it is public(Approximately

400)

Power table

POWER TABLE
21 = 2

29

= 512

217 = 131072

225 = 33554432

22 = 4

210 = 1024

218 = 262144

226 = 67108864

23 = 8

211 = 2048

219 = 524288

227 = 134217728

24 = 16

212 = 4096

220 = 1048576

228 = 268435456

25 = 32

213 = 8192

221 = 2097152

229 = 536870912

26 = 64

214 = 16384

222 = 4194304

230 = 1073741824

27 = 128

215 = 32768

223 = 8388608

231 = 2147483648

28 = 256

216 = 65536

224 = 16777216

232 = 4294967296

Some Important Values

VALUES IN SUBNET MASK

Bit

Value

Mask

1 128

10000000

2 192

11000000

3 224

11100000

4 240

11110000

5 248

11111000

6 252

11111100

7 254

11111110

8 255

11111111

Requirement of Networks is 2 ?
Example 1
Class C : N.N.N.H
110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx
Class C : 192.168.1.0
No. of Subnet
= 2n 2 Req. of Subnet
= 22 2 2 (-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 42
= 2 Subnet
No. of Host
= 2h 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 26 2
= 64 2
= 62 Hosts/Subnet

Example 1 (Continued)
Customized Subnet Mask =
255.
255.
255.

192

11 1111 1 111 111 1 11 111 11 11 0 0000

If you convert 2 Host Bits to Network Bits
1.
1.
1.
0
Range of Networks
2 Subnet & 62 Hosts/Subnet
12
8
64

Network ID
Broadcast ID
Customized Subnet Mask
192.168.1.0
192.168.1.63
192.168.1.0255.255.255.192
192.168.1.63
192.168.1.127
192.168.1.64
Subnet192.168.1.191
Range
Valid
192.168.1.12
192.168.1.255
192.168.1.64
to 192.168.1.127
MCSE
Subnets
8
192.168.1.192
192.168.1.255 CISCO
192.168.1.128
192.168.1.19to 192.168.1.191
2

Requirement of subnet is 14?

Example -2
CLASS C: N.N.N.H
110xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx
Class C : 192.168.1.0
No. of Subnet
= 2n 2 Req. of Subnet
= 24 2 14(-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 16 2
= 14 Subnet
No. of Host
= 2h 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 24 2
= 16 2
= 14 Hosts/Subnet

EXAMPLE 2 (Continued)
Customized
Subnet
Mask
= Bits to Network Bits
If you
convert
4 Host
255.

255.
240
14
Subnet &255.
14 Hosts/Subnet

12
8
64
32
16

Subnet
Mask
11 1111 1 111Customized
111 1 11 111
11 111
1 000
1.
1. 255.255.255.240
1.
0
Range of Networks
Subnet Range
Network192.168.1.16
ID
Broadcast
ID
to 192.168.1.31
192.168.1.0
192.168.1.32
to 192.168.1.47
192.168.1.15
192.168.1.0
192.168.1.15
192.168.1.48 192.168.1.31
to 192.168.1.63
192.168.1.16
192.168.1.64 192.168.1.47
to 192.168.1.79

192.168.1.32
192.168.1.63
192.168.1.48
192.168.1.240 to 192.168.1.255

192.168.1.240 to 192.168.1.255
Valid
192.168.1.239 Subnets
192.168.1.22

4
192.168.1.24
192.168.1.240
0

192.168.1.255

192.168.1.255

Requirement of Hosts is 40 ?
Example 3
Class C : N.N.N.H
1 10x x xx x .xx x x xx x x .x x xx x xx x .xx x x xx x x
Class C : 192.168.1.0
No. of Host
= 2h 2 Req. of Host
= 26 2 40 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 64 2
= 62 Hosts/Subnet
No. of Subnet
= 2n 2 (-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 22 2
= 42
= 2 Subnet

Example 3 (Continued)

12
8
64

Customized Subnet Mask =

If you convert
Bits to Network
Bits
255.
255. 2 Host
255.
192
2 Subnet & 62 Hosts/Subnet
11 1111 1 111 111 1 11 111 11 11 0 0000
1.
1.
1.
0
Customized
Subnet
Mask
Range of Networks
Network ID 255.255.255.192
Broadcast ID

192.168.1.0
192.168.1.0
192.168.1.63
192.168.1.63
Subnet 192.168.1.127
Range
192.168.1.64
Valid
192.168.1.64
to
192.168.1.127
192.168.1.12
192.168.1.191
Subnets
192.168.1.192
8192.168.1.128192.168.1.255
to192.168.1.255
192.168.1.191
192.168.1.19
2

Requirement of Hosts is 2 ?
Example 2
Class C : N.N.N.H
1 10x x xx x .xx x x xx x x .x x xx x xx x . xx x x xx x x
Class C : 192.168.1.0
No. of Host
= 2h 2 Req. of Host
= 22 2 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 42
= 2 Hosts/Subnet
No. of Subnet
= 2n 2 (-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 26 2
= 64 2
= 62 Subnet

Example 2 (Continued)
Customized Subnet Mask =
255.
255.
255.

252

11 1111 1 111 111 1 11 111 11 111 111 0

1. of Networks
1.
1.
0
Range
12
6
84
3
162
8
4

Network ID
Broadcast ID
192.168.1.0
192.168.1.0
192.168.1.3
192.168.1.3
192.168.1.7
192.168.1.4
192.168.1.11
192.168.1.8
192.168.1.15
192.168.1.12
Valid
Subnets

192.168.1.24
192.168.1.252
8
192.168.1.25
2

192.168.1.251
192.168.1.255
192.168.1.255

Requirement of Networks is 2 ?
Example 4
Class B : N.N.H.H
1 0x x xx x x.x xx x x xx x . x x x xx x xx .x x xx x xx x
Class B : 172.16.0.0
No. of Subnet
= 2n 2 Req. of Subnet
= 22 2 2 (-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 42
= 2 Subnet
No. of Host
= 2h 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 214 2
= 16384 2
= 16382 Hosts/Subnet

Example 4 (Continued)
Customized Subnet Mask =
192.
255.
255.
11 1111 1
1.

11 111 11
1.

11 000 00
0.

12
864

0
000 0000
0

Range of Networks
Network ID
Broadcast ID
172.16.63.255
172.16.0.0
172.16.0.0
172.16.63.255
172.16.64.0
172.16.127.255
Valid
172.16.128.0
172.16.191.255 Subnets
172.16.192.0
172.16.192.0 172.16.255.255
172.16.255.255

Requirement of Hosts is 126 ?

Example 5
Class B : N.N.H.H
1 0x x xx x x.x xx x x xx x . x x x xx x xx .x x xx x xx x
Class B : 172.16.0.0
No. of Host
= 2h 2 Req. of Host
= 27 2 126 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 128 2
= 126 Hosts/Subnet
No. of Subnet
= 2n 2 (-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 29 2
= 512 2
= 510 Subnet

Example 2 (Continued)
Customized Subnet Mask =
255.

255.

255.

128

11 1111 1 111 111 1 11 111 11 100 0000

1. of Networks
1.
1.
0
Range
12
8

Network ID
Broadcast ID
172.16.0.127
172.16.0.0
172.16.0.127
172.16.0.0
172.16.0.255
172.16.0.128
172.16.1.127
172.16.1.0
172.16.1.255
172.16.1.128
Valid
Subnets

172.16.255.0
172.16.255.128
172.16.255.1
28

172.16.255.127
172.16.255.255
172.16.255.255

VLSM

Subnetting a subnet is called as Variable Length Subnet

Mask

VLSMs provide the capability to include more than one

subnet mask within a major network

Scenario

ZOOM Technologies is having 100 PC

ZOOM Technologies 192.168.1.0/24
MCSE
CISCO
FIREWALL
SOLARIS
TRAINING
Administrators requirement : Inter-department
communication should not be possible ?
Best Solution is :
FLSM i.e. Subnetting

Scenario (continued)

Now we are also having sub departments

ZOOM Technologies
MCSE
CISCO
CCNA
CCNP
FIREWALL
ISA
Checkpoint
NetASQ
Clavister
Cisco PIX
SOLARIS
Linux
Unix
Solaris
TRAINING

Scenario (continued)
Administrator does not want inter-department
communication in the sub departments ?
Answer : You will use the subnet range to further divide it
into smaller ranges, this time its Subnetting of a Subnet
i.e. VLSM.

Calculation of FLSM
Class C : N.N.N.H
11 0x x xx x .x x x xx x xx .xx x x xx x x . xx x x xx x x
Class C : 192.168.1.0
No. of Subnet
= 2n 2 Req. of Subnet
= 23 2 5 (-2 is for First & Last Subnet Range)
= 82
= 6 Subnet
No. of Host
= 2h 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 25 2
= 32 2
= 30 Hosts/Subnet

Example 1 (Continued)
Customized Subnet Mask =
255.

255.

255.

224

11 1111 1 111 111 1 11 111 11 111 0000

1. of Networks
1.
1.
0
Range
12
8
64
32

Network ID
Broadcast ID
192.168.1.0
192.168.1.31
192.168.1.0
192.168.1.31
192.168.1.63
192.168.1.32
192.168.1.95
192.168.1.64
192.168.1.127
192.168.1.96
192.168.1.159Valid
192.168.1.12
192.168.1.191 Subnets
8
192.168.1.223
192.168.1.16
192.168.1.224
192.168.1.255
192.168.1.255
0
192.168.1.19
2
192.168.1.22

Assigning of the Ranges

ZOOM Technologies
192.168.1.32 1.63/27
MCSE
192.168.1.64 1.95/27
CISCO
CCNA
CCNP
FIREWALL 192.168.1.96 1.127/27
ISA
Checkpoint
NetASQ
Clavister
Cisco PIX
SOLARIS 192.168.1.128 1.159/27
Linux
Unix
Solaris
TRAINING 192.168.1.160 1.191/27

Calculation of VLSM for CISCO Dept.

Class C : N.N.N.H
11 0x x xx x .x x x xx x xx .xx x x xx x x .xx x xx x x x
Class C : 192.168.1.64
No. of Subnet
= 2n Req. of Subnet
= 21 2
= 2
= 2 Subnet
No. of Host
= 2h 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 24 2
= 16 2
= 14 Hosts/Subnet

VLSM

(Continued)

Customized Subnet Mask =

255.
255.
255.

240

12
648
32
16

11 1111 1 111 111 1 11 111 11 111 1 000

1.
1.
1.
0

Range of Networks
Network ID
Broadcast ID
192.168.1.64
192.168.1.79Valid
192.168.1.80
192.168.1.95 Subnets

Assigning of the Ranges

ZOOM Technologies
192.168.1.32 1.63/27
MCSE
192.168.1.64 1.95/27
CISCO
192.168.1.64 1.79/28
CCNA
CCNP
192.168.1.80 1.95/28
FIREWALL 192.168.1.96 1.127/27
ISA
Checkpoint
NetASQ
Clavister
Cisco PIX
SOLARIS 192.168.1.128 1.159/27
Linux
Unix
Solaris
TRAINING 192.168.1.160 1.191/27

Calculation
Dept.

of

VLSM

for

Firewall

Class C : N.N.N.H
11 0x x xx x .x x x xx x xx .xx x x xx x x .xx x x xxx
xxx
0xxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxx
Class C : 192.168.1.96
No. of Subnet
= 2n Req. of Subnet
= 23 5
= 8
= 8 Subnet
No. of Host
= 2h 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 22 2
= 42
= 2 Hosts/Subnet

VLSM

(Continued)

Customized Subnet Mask =

255.

255.

255.

252

12

8
64
32
16
8
4

11 1111 1 111 111 1 11 111 11 111 111 0

Range
1. of Networks
1.
1.
0

Network ID
Broadcast ID
192.168.1.99
192.168.1.96
192.168.1.103
192.168.1.10
192.168.1.107
0
192.168.1.111Valid
192.168.1.10
192.168.1.115 Subnets
4
192.168.1.119
192.168.1.10
192.168.1.123
8
192.168.1.127
192.168.1.11
2
192.168.1.11
6

Assigning of the Ranges

ZOOM Technologies
192.168.1.32 1.63/27
MCSE
192.168.1.64 1.95/27
CISCO
192.168.1.64 1.79/28
CCNA
CCNP
192.168.1.80 1.95/28
FIREWALL 192.168.1.96 1.127/27
192.168.1.96 1.99/30
ISA
192.168.1.100 1.103/30
Checkpoint
NetASQ 192.168.1.104 1.107/30
Clavister192.168.1.108 1.111/30
192.168.1.112 1.115/30
Cisco PIX
SOLARIS 192.168.1.128 1.159/27
Linux
Unix
Solaris
TRAINING 192.168.1.160 1.191/27

Calculation of VLSM for Solaris Dept.

Class C : N.N.N.H
11 0x x xx x .x x x xx x xx .xx x x xx x x .xx x xx x x x
Class C : 192.168.1.128
No. of Subnet
= 2n Req. of Subnet
= 22 3
= 4
= 4 Subnet
No. of Host
= 2h 2 (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 23 2
= 82
= 6 Hosts/Subnet

VLSM

Customized Subnet Mask =

255.
255.
255.

248

11 1111 1 111 111 1 11 111 11 111 11 00

1.
1.
1.
0
12
864
32
16
8

(Continued)

Range of Networks
Network ID
Broadcast ID
192.168.1.128
192.168.1.135
192.168.1.136
192.168.1.143
Valid
192.168.1.144
192.168.1.151
Subnets
192.168.1.152
192.168.1.159

Assigning of the Ranges

ZOOM Technologies
192.168.1.32 1.63/27
MCSE
192.168.1.64 1.95/27
CISCO
192.168.1.64 1.79/28
CCNA
CCNP
192.168.1.80 1.95/28
FIREWALL 192.168.1.96 1.127/27
192.168.1.96 1.99/30
ISA
192.168.1.100 1.103/30
Checkpoint
NetASQ 192.168.1.104 1.107/30
Clavister192.168.1.108 1.111/30
192.168.1.112 1.115/30
Cisco PIX
SOLARIS 192.168.1.128 1.159/27
Linux192.168.1.128 1.135/29
Unix 192.168.1.136 1.143/29
192.168.1.144 1.151/29
Solaris
TRAINING 192.168.1.160 1.191/27

Open System
Interconnect
(OSI)

OSI

OSI was developed by the International Organization

for Standardization (ISO) and introduced in 1984.

It is a layered architecture (consists of seven layers).

Each layer defines a set of functions which takes part in

data communication.

OSI Model Layers

Layer
7
Layer
6
Layer
5
Layer
4
Layer
3
Layer
2
Layer
1

Application
Application
Presentation
Presentation
Session
Session
Transport
Transport

User support
Layers
or
Software Layers
Core layer of
the OSI

Network
Network
Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Network support
Layers
or
Hardware Layers

Application Layer

Application
Application

Presentation
Presentation

Session
Session
Transport
Transport
Network
Network
Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Application Layer is responsible

for providing an interface for the
users to interact with application
services or Networking Services .
Ex: Web browser, Telnet etc.

Examples of Networking Services

Service

Port No.

HTTP

80

FTP

21

SMTP

25

TELNET

23

TFTP

69

Data flow from Application Layer

Data
Data

Application
Application
8
0

2
1

2
5

5
3

6
7

Presentation
Presentation
Session
Session
Transport
Transport
Network
Network
Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

6
9

Presentation Layer

Application
Application
Presentation
Presentation
Session
Session
Transport
Transport
Network
Network
Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Presentation Layer It is
responsible for defining a
standard format to the data.
It deals with data presentation.
The major functions described at
this layer are..
Encoding
Decoding
Eg: ASCII, EBCDIC (Text)
JPEG,GIF,TIFF (Graphics)
MIDI,WAV (Voice)
MPEG,DAT,AVI (Video)
Encryption
Decryption
Compression Decompression

Data flow from Presentation Layer

Application
Application

Data
Data

Presentation
Presentation

Data
Data

Session
Session
Transport
Transport
Network
Network
Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Session Layer

Application
Application
Presentation
Presentation
Session
Session
Transport
Transport
Network
Network
Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Session Layer
It is responsible for establishing,
maintaining and terminating the
sessions.
Session ID is used to identify a
session or interaction.
Examples :
RPC Remote Procedural Call
SQL Structured Query Language
ASP AppleTalk Session protocol

Data flow from Session Layer

Application
Application

Data
Data

Presentation
Presentation

Data
Data

Session
Session

Data
Data

Transport
Transport
Network
Network
Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Transport Layer

Application
Application
Presentation
Presentation
Session
Session
Transport
Transport
Network
Network
Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Transport Layer
It provides data delivery
mechanism between the
applications in the network.
The major functions described at
the Transport Layer are..
Identifying Service
Multiplexing & De-multiplexing
Segmentation
Sequencing & Reassembling
Error Correction
Flow Control

Identifying a Service

Identification of Services is done using port Numbers.

Port is a logical communication Channel

Total No. Ports
0 65535
Reserved Ports 1 - 1023
Open Ports
1024 65535

Multiplexing & De-multiplexing

Application
Application
Presentation
Presentation
Session
Session
8
0

2 2
1 5

5 6 6
3 7 9

Transport
Transport

TCP 6

UDP 17

Network
Network

Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Transport Layer Protocols

The protocols which takes care of Data Transportation

at Transport layer areTCP,UDP

TCP

Transmission Control
Protocol

Connection Oriented
Supports Acks

Reliable
communication

Slower data
Transportation

Protocol No is 6
Eg: HTTP, FTP, SMTP

UDP

User Datagram
Protocol

Connection Less
No support for Acks

Unreliable
communication

Faster data
Transportation

Protocol No is 17
Eg: DNS, DHCP, TFTP

Segmentation

HELLO!
HOWHELLO!
ARE YOU?

Data
Data

HOW

ARE

YOU

Sequencing

HELLO!
HOWHELLO!
ARE YOU?

Data
Data

HOW

ARE

YOU

Sequencing

HOW

ARE

HELLO!

YOU

Sequencing

HELLO! HOW
1/5
2/5

Data
Data

ARE
3/5

YOU
4/5

?
5/5

Sequencing

HOW
2/5

?
5/5

ARE
3/5

HELLO!
1/5

YOU
4/5

Data flow from Transport Layer

Application
Application

Data
Data

Presentation
Presentation

Data
Data

Session
Session

Data
Data

Transport
Transport

Segment
TH
Data
Segment
TH
Data

Network
Network
Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Network Layer

Application
Application
Presentation
Presentation
Session
Session
Transport
Transport
Network
Network
Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Network Layer
It provides Logical addressing &
Path determination (Routing)
The protocols that work in this
layer are:
Routed Protocols:
IP, IPX, AppleTalk.. Etc
Routed protocols used to carry user
data between hosts.

Routing Protocols:
RIP, OSPF.. Etc
Routing protocols performs Path
determination (Routing).

Data flow from Network Layer

Application
Application

Data
Data

Presentation
Presentation

Data
Data

Device that works at

Network Layer
is Router

Session
Session

Data
Data

Transport
Transport

Segment
TH
Data
Segment
TH
Data

Network
Network

Segme
Segme
Packet
NH
NHPacket
nt
nt

Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Datalink Layer

Application
Application
Presentation
Presentation
Session
Session
Transport
Transport
Network
Network
Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Datalink Layer
It has 2 sub layers
MAC (Media Access Control) It
provides reliable transit of data
across a physical link.
It also provides ERROR
DETECTION using CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check)
Ex: Ethernet, Token ringetc
LLC (Logical Link Control)
It provides communication with
Network layer.

Data flow from Data link Layer

Devices that work

at Data link layer
are Switch, Bridge
etc..

Application
Application

Data
Data

Presentation
Presentation

Data
Data

Session
Session

Data
Data

Transport
Transport

Segment
TH
Data
Segment
TH
Data

Network
Network
Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Segme
Segme
Packet
NH
NHPacket
nt
nt
D
Pack
D Frame
Pack D
D
Frame
H
T
et
H
T
et

Physical Layer
Application
Application
Presentation
Presentation
Session
Session
Transport
Transport
Network
Network
Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Physical Layer
It defines the electrical, Mechanical &
functional specifications for
communication between the Network
devices.
The functions described at this layer
are..
Encoding/decoding:
It is the process of converting the
binary data into signals based on the
type of the media.
Copper media :
Electrical signals of
different voltages
Fiber media: Light pulses of different
wavelengths
Wireless media:
Radio frequency waves

Data flow from Physical Layer

Devices that work at

physical layer are ..
Hub, Repeater.. Etc

Application
Application

Data
Data

Presentation
Presentation

Data
Data

Session
Session

Data
Data

Transport
Transport

Segment
TH
Data
Segment
TH
Data

Network
Network
Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Segme
Segme
Packet
NH
NHPacket
nt
nt
D
Pack
D Frame
Pack D
D
Frame
H
T
et
H
T
et
Bits
Bits

Comparison between OSI & TCP/IP

Model

Application
Application
Presentation
Presentation

Application
Application

Session
Session
Transport
Transport

Host
Host to
to Host
Host

Network
Network

Internet
Internet

Data
Data Link
Link
Physical
Physical

Network
Network Access
Access