Flowporous Media 2

Fluid Flow in Porous Media

LESSON OBJECTIVES:
UNDERSTAND FORCES RESPONSIBLE FOR

DRIVING FLUID THROUGH RESERVOIR
BE AWARE OF MODELS AVAILABLE TO

REPRESENT RESERVOIR AND WELLS
ASSESS FLOW PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR
INTRODUCE CONCEPTS USED IN WELLTESTING
CONTENTS
Introduction
Darcys
Law
Linear
Flow
Radial
Flow
Skin
Effect
Diffusivity
Equations
Dimensionless
variables
INTRODUCTION
Darcys Law is fundamental to reservoir engineering
Quantifies the rate of flow of fluids through porous

media
Objective to understand mechanism of fluid

migration in order to understand and improve
recovery from the reservoir.
Similar in concept to flow in pipes
Dimensions give rise to scaling problem capillary

forces become relatively important (over viscous
forces)
INTRODUCTION
FLUID FLOW DEPENDS ON:
RESERVOIR GEOMETRY
RESERVOIR FLUIDS
RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
TWO METHODS TO REPRESENT FLUID FLOW:
ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS TO DIFFUSIVITY

EQUATION
APPROXIMATION METHODS TO DIFFUSIVITY

EQUATION USING FINITE DIFFERENCE/
FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATIONS
HENRY DARCY
19th
century French engineer
While
designing a filter to
process his towns water
demand
Vertical
flow of water
through packed sand
Introduce
the concept of
permeability (unit: mD)
DARCYS LAW
What are the parameters that affect fluid flow?
DARCYS LAW
L
kA dp
q
dx
Why the sign ?
dx
Flow rate (cm3/s)

Cross sectional area (cm2)
Viscosity of flowing fluid (cp)
Permeability (Darcy)
Pressure gradient (atm/cm)
Transport equation implying velocity is proportional

to pressure gradient and reciprocal to viscosity
Assumptions of Darcys Law

The
fluids exhibit laminar flow
Most
Gas
Only
oil reservoirs
fields, high gas/oil rate give turbulent flow
one phase present
Uncommon
Extend
in petroleum reservoirs
Darcys Law for multiphase flow
There
are no chemical reactions between fluid

and the rock
Do
not account microscopic effect
Changes
in structure of porous medium violate Darcys

Law (e.g clay swelling)
Darcys Law for Multiphase

Flow
Extended to multiphase - concept of rel perm
k .k ro A dp
qo
o dr
qg
k .k rg A dp
dr
k .k rw A dp
qw
w dr
From Darcys Law, basic linear and radial flow
equations under steady condition can be derived.
Linear Flow of Incompressible 11

Fluids
Assumptions:
Flow occurs through a constant cross-sectional area A,

where both ends are entirely open to flow.
No flow crosses the sides, top, or bottom.
Applying darcy equation:

Integration of
darcy
equation
V= =q=
Equation in
field units
q=
bbl/day
k=
md
P=
psia
A= ft2
q=
L=
ft
=
cp
Steady State Linear Flow (Fluids)

Q
P1
P2
kA P1 P2
g
sin
In field units
Permeability
(mD)
Area
(ft2)
Specific
Gravity
1.127 10 3 kA P1 P2
q
0.4335 sin
Flowrate
(rb/d)
Viscosity
(cp)
Pressure
Gradient
(psi/ft)
Tilt
angle
Steady State Linear Flow (Gases)

In field units
Permeability
(mD)
Pressure at
outer boundary
(psi)
Area
(ft2)
2
2
6.328 10 kA P1 P2
qsc
Flowrate
(MMscf/d)
Viscosity
(cp)
Distance
(ft)
Pressure at
inner boundary
(psi)
Darcys Law for Radial

Flow
Curved
kA dp
k (2rh ) dp
q
dr
dr
surface
open to flow
For fluid flow to occur, a pressure gradient must be established

between the inner and outer boundary of the reservoir.
Pressure
gradient dp/dr
rw
re
Drainage
Steady State Radial Flow

2 kh Pe Pw
q
. ln re / rw
In field units
Permeability
(mD)
Height
(ft)
0.00708 kh Pe Pw
q
. ln re / rw
Flowrate
(rb/d)
Viscosity
(cp)
Outer
boundary
radius(ft)
Inner
boundary
radius(ft)
Pressure at
outer boundary
(psi)
Pressure at
inner boundary
(psi)
re
q
Pe Pw
ln
2 kh rw
Radial Flow Pressure Profile
Pe
Pw
rw
re
Initial steady state, no flow
Flow initiated at constant rate
Pressure profile develops
Pressure disturbance reaches outer boundary

Sealed therefore the pressure in system drops
Well shut in and pressure builds in well
Steady state, no flow
DIFFUSIVITY
EQUATION
Diffusion is a process by which there is a net flow of
matter from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration.
INTRODUCTION
Why is it important to understand reservoir fluid
and flow characteristics?
Determine productivity of a reservoir
Determine optimum strategy to maximise recovery
One major aspect that affect fluid flow is the rockfluid interaction
Surface chemistry, surface tension, capillary pressure,
permeability
This factor will in turn affect the time taken by the

pressure to change in the reservoir or for fluid to
migrate
Why is it important to know the pressure change?
Illustrate: Reservoir well flow
Consider a water saturated reservoir rock
Response not instantaneous
Pressure changes may take days, even years to manifest

themselves
In this case, the flow regime would not be steady-state

while pressure is finding its equilibrium
Thus Darcys Law cannot be applied
Diffusion process need to be examined time dependent

scenarios must be assessed
Fluid Flow Regime
Pres=4500 psi
In order to produce at constant rate, we

need to impose a pressure in the
wellbore, lets say 3500 psi.
But, the wellbore pressure, Pw will not

instantaneously changed to 3500 psi.
It takes time for its initial pressure, 4500

psi to become 3500 psi.
The time taken is the duration of a nonsteady state flow regime
With time, reservoir pressure will

decline, unless
High drive mechanism (gascap)
Pressure maintenance scheme

(injection)
Pwf=3500 psi
In this case, the pressure will equilibrate

(becomes steady at 3500 psi)
Steady state flow regime
Pressure Profile with Radial Distance

q
4500
Pwf
t=0
Pe
t1
t2
t3
t4 and
later
3500
rw
re
Pressure Profile with time

Pwf
4500
Transient
Semi
steady
Steady State
3500
t=0
t1
t2
t3
t4 and
later
Idealised Flow Patterns

There are a number of idealised flow patterns
LINEAR
RADIAL
SPHERICAL
HEMISPHERICAL
Most important
Both: describe water encroachment from an
aquifer into reservoir
Radial: describe flow of fluid around wellbore
In order to derive diffusion eqn, it is assumed that cP1 (if not,
pressure dependence of compressibility c must be taken into
account
Idealised Flow Patterns
LINEAR, RADIAL, SPHERICAL, HEMISPHERICAL
LINEAR AND RADIAL OF MOST USE
ASSUME OIL SYSTEM WITH CP<<1, I.E.

SMALL AND CONSTANT COMPRESSIBILITY
IF GAS RESERVOIR, COMPRESSIBILITY MUST

BE ACCOUNTED FOR (BY GAS PSEUDOFUNCTIONS FOR EXAMPLE)
General Case
FLOW VELOCITY, U
RESOLVED INTO X, Y, Z DIRECTIONS
THE COMPONENTS OF THE FLOW VELOCITY

VECTOR, U ARE:
UX = -(KX/)(P/X)
UY = -(KY/)(P/Y)
kUZ= =permeability
(m2) in the direction of X, Y, Z. The Z direction has
-(KZ/)(P/Z+G)
an elevation term, g, included to account for the change in head.
P = pressure (Pa)
= viscosity (Pas)
= density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
U = flow velocity (m/s) = (m3/s/m2)
Linear Horizontal Model of a Single Phase

Fluid
flowrate, q
dx
area, A
x=L
x+dx
porosity,
X axis
x
flowrate, q
in
x=0
isometric view
dx
flowrate, q
flowrate, q
in
x=0
x+dx
X axis
plan view
x=L
out
out
FLOW ALONG X DIRECTION, NO FLOW IN Y OR Z

DIRECTIONS
FLOW INTO CUBOID AT LEFT, OUT OF CUBOID AT
RIGHT
TOTAL LENGTH, L
ROCK 100% SATURATED WITH ONE FLUID
In terms of distance (x)
k P
U x
x
FLOW EQUATIONS:
0xL
U

In terms of time (t)

t
x
K = PERMEABILITY (IN THE X DIRECTION), (MD)

=
DENSITY, (KG/M3)
U = FLOW VELOCITY (M/S)

T = TIME (S)
=
POROSITY
VISCOSITY, PAS
P = PRESSURE, PA
X = DISTANCE, (M)
FLUID FLOWS IN AT POSITION X=0, OUT AT X=L.

ELEMENT FROM X TO POSITION X+DX IS EXAMINED.
THE BULK VOLUME OF THE ELEMENT IS THE
PRODUCT OF THE AREA, A AND THE LENGTH, DX,
I.E. BULK VOLUME = A*DX.
THE PORE VOLUME OF ELEMENT IS PRODUCT OF
THE BULK VOLUME AND THE POROSITY, , I.E. PORE
VOLUME = A*DX*
IF FLOW STEADY STATE THEN THE FLOWRATES INTO
AND OUT OF THE VOLUME (QIN AND QOUT) WOULD BE
IDENTICAL AND DARCYS LAW WOULD APPLY.

IF THE FLOW RATES VARY FROM THE INLET OF THE
VOLUME TO THE OUTLET, I.E. Q IN QOUT THEN EITHER:
FLUID IS ACCUMULATING IN THE ELEMENT AND Q IN >
QOUT
OR:
FLUID IS DEPLETING FROM THE ELEMENT Q OUT > QIN
(WHICH IS POSSIBLE IN A PRESSURISED SYSTEM SINCE
THE PRESSURE OF THE FLUID IN THE ELEMENT MAY
REDUCE CAUSING IT TO EXPAND AND PRODUCE A
HIGHER FLOW RATE OUT OF THE ELEMENT)

THEREFORE, THERE IS A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CHANGE
IN MASS, M, ALONG THE CUBOID AND THE CHANGE IN DENSITY,
, OVER TIME AS THE MASS ACCUMULATES OR DEPLETES FROM
ANY ELEMENT. IN TERMS OF MASS FLOWRATE,
MASS FLOW RATE THROUGH THE AREA, A = Q ((M3/S)*(KG/M3)
= KG/S)
MASS FLOW RATE THROUGH THE AREA, A AT POSITION X = (Q)X
MASS FLOW RATE THROUGH THE AREA, A AT POSITION X+DX
(Q)X+DX
MASS FLOWRATE INTO A VOLUME ELEMENT AT X MINUS

MASS FLOWRATE OUT OF ELEMENT AT X + DX
DX
=(Q)X- (Q)X+
The mass flow rate out of the element is also equal to the rate of change of
mass flow in the element, i.e.
q x dx
q
q x
* dx
x
q
Change in mass flow rate =
* dx
x
(if change is +ve, element accumulating mass, if ve depleting mass)
This must equal rate of change of mass in element with volume A*dx*
Rate of change of mass equal to
hence
=A
x
t
A dx
FLOW VELOCITY U = Q/A, THEREFORE
t
x
or
t
x
Substitution of parameters gives
k P
x x
t
EQUATION SHOWS AREAL CHANGE IN PRESSURE LINKED

TO TEMPORAL CHANGE IN DENSITY. MEASURE PRESSURE
EASIER THAN DENSITY, THEREFORE USE ISOTHERMAL
COMPRESSIBILITY TO CONVERT TO PRESSURE
1 V
c= ( )
V P
m
The density equals mass per unit volume V
Hence:
(m/ ) 1
c=
=
P ; (Quotient Rule, constant mass system)
m P
Since
P
t = P t =c t
Then
P
k P
= c
t
x x
(from above)
P
k P
= c
t
x x
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR LINEAR FLOW OF
ANY SINGLE PHASE FLUID IN POROUS MEDIUM
RELATES SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL VARIATIONS IN
PRESSURE
IN
CORE RELATES PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ALONG

CORE DURING FLOODING, DURING ALL TIME, I.E. FROM
START OF FLOOD TO STAEDY STATE CONDITIONS
IN
LINEAR RESERVOIR WHERE AQUIFER FLOWS INTO

RESERVOIR AS PRODUCTION PROCEEDS
BUT, NON-LINEAR BECAUSE OF PRESSURE
DEPENDENCE OF DENSITY, COMPRESSIBILITY AND
VISCOSITY.
SIMPLE LINEARISATION
FOLLOWS
Diffusivity Equation
LINEAR FLOW
RADIAL FLOW
k P
P
c
x x
t
1 k P
P
c
r
r r r
t
Non linear p.d.e since , and c depend on pressure the

equations must be linearised.
P c P

x x
k t
1 P c P
r

r r r
k t
These equations need to solved in order to be applicable to real

reservoirs. It can be solved according to the flow regime
transient, semi steady or steady state.
Diffusivity equation is fundamental to well testing
RECAP LAST CLASS
Types of fluids
Incompressible fluids
Slightly compressible fluids
Compressible fluids
50
Incompressible fluids
An incompressible fluid is defined as the fluid

whose volume (or density) does not change
with pressure.
=0
=0
Incompressible fluid do not exist in nature,

however this behavior may be assumed in
some cases to simplify the derivation and the
final form of many flow equations.
51
Slightly compressible
fluids
The slightly compressible fluids exhibit small

changes in volume, or density, with changes in
pressure.
Crude oil and water systems fit into this

category of fluids.
52
Compressible fluids
These are fluids that experience large changes

in volume as a function of pressure.
All gases are considered compressible fluids.
The isothermal compressibility of any

compressible fluid can be shown as:
Cg = - ) T
53
Different fluid types
Reservoir engineering II. Amin Azdarpour
Pressure- Volume relationship

Pressure-Density relationship
54
Steady-state flow
The flow regime is identified as a steady-state

flow if the pressure at every location in the
reservoir remains constant, i.e., does not
change with time.
)i =
In reservoirs, the steady-state flow condition

can only occur when the reservoir is completely
recharged and supported by strong aquifer or
pressure maintenance operations.
55
The applications of the steady-state

56
flow
The applications of the steady-state flow to describe
the flow
behavior of several types of fluid in different reservoir
geometries are presented below. These include:
Linear
flow of incompressible fluids
Linear
flow of slightly compressible fluids
Linear
flow of compressible fluids
Radial
flow of incompressible fluids
Radial
flow of slightly compressible fluids
Radial
flow of compressible fluids
Example 1
57
An incompressible fluid flows in a linear porous media with

the following properties. Calculate:
Flow rate in bbl/day
Apparent fluid velocity in ft/day
Actual fluid velocity in ft/day
Propertie
s
value
200
0
ft
100
md
P1
P2
2000 1990
psi
psi
widt
h
15%
20 ft
300
ft
2 cp
Solution Example 1
58
Linear flow with gravitational

59
force
Pressure difference is not the only driving force

and gravitational is the other important driving
force.
The fluid gradient force (gravitational force) is

always directed vertically downward while the
force that results from an applied pressure drop
may be in any direction.
The fluid potential () at any point in the

reservoir is defined as the pressure at that point
less the pressure that would be exerted by a
fluid head extending to an arbitrarily assigned
datum level.
zi is the vertical distance from a point i in the
Cont
60
i= Pi (
i= Pi 0.433
i, psi
Pi, psi
, ft
, lb/ft3
q=
,
gm/cm3
If point i is above the datum level:
i= Pi + (
If point i is below the datum level:
i=Pi (
The vertical distance zi is assigned as a positive value

when the point i is below the datum level and as a
negative when it is above the datum level
Example 2
61
Assume that the porous media with the

properties as given in the previous example is
tilted with a dip angle of 5 as shown in below
figure. The incompressible fluid has a density of
42 lb/ft3. Resolve previous example using this
additional information.
Solution Example 2
62
Linear flow of slightly compressible

63
fluids
Cont
64
Separating
the variables and arranging:
= -0.001127
Integration gives:
qref = [] ln []
Selecting the upstream pressure P1 as the reference
pressure pref: :
q1 = [] ln [1+c(P1-P2)]
Choosing the downstream pressure P2 as the
reference pressure:
q2 = [] ln []
Example 3
65
Consider the linear system given in Example1 and assuming

a slightly compressible liquid, calculate the flow rate at both
ends of the linear system. The liquid has an average
compressibility of 21105 psi1.
q1
P1
P2
q2
Solution Example 3
The above calculations show that q1 and q2 are not largely different,
which is due to the fact that the liquid is slightly incompressible and its
volume is not a strong function of pressure.
Linear Flow of compressible fluids

67
(gases)
For a viscous (laminar) gas flow in a homogeneous-linear system,

the real-gas equation-of-state can be applied to calculate the
number of gas moles n at pressure p, temperature T, and volume V:
n= PV/zRT
At standard conditions, the volume occupied by the above n moles
is:
Vsc=
Combination of above two equation with assuming zsc=1 gives:
In terms of flow rate can be expressed as:

68
(gases)
Rearranging
gives:
()()() = q
Replacing q with darcy law gives:
= ()()()() = -0.001127
Converting to field units and separation and rearrangement gives:
[] = - dP
Assuming constant z and g over the specified pressure of P1 and P2
and after integration:
Qsc =
The above equation is valid for applications when the pressure < 2000
psi. The gas properties must be evaluated at the average pressure as
defined below:
P= /2

69
(gases)
Example 4
70
A linear porous media is flowing a 0.72 specific

gravity gas at 120F. The upstream and downstream
pressures are 2100 psi and 1894.73 psi, respectively.
The cross-sectional area is constant at 4500 ft2. The
total length is 2500 feet with an absolute
permeability of 60 md.
Calculate the gas flow rate in scf/day
(Psc=14.7psia,Tsc= 520R).
Solution Example 4
Solution Example 4
1270731
Temp = 120 F + 460 = 580 R
REMEMBER :It is essential to notice that those gas properties z and g

are a very strong function of pressure, but they have been removed from
the integralto simplify the final form of the gas flow equation. The above
equationis valid for applications when the pressure < 2000 psi.
Radial flow of
incompressible fluids
73
The formation is considered to a uniform thickness h and a constant permeability k.

Because the fluid is incompressible, the flow rate q must be constant at all radii. Due to
the steady-state flowing condition, the pressure profile around the wellbore is
maintained constant with time.
q
k dp
V
0.001127
Ar
dr
qr = volumetric flow rate at radius r
Ar = cross-sectional area to flow at radius r
(p/r)r = pressure gradient at radius r
V = apparent velocity at radius r
The minus sign is no longer required for the

radial system as the radius increases in the
same direction as the pressure. In other words,
as the radius increases going away from the
wellbore the pressure also increases.
Cont
74
At any point in the reservoir the cross-sectional area across which flow
occurs will be the surface area of a cylinder, which is 2rh:
q
q
k dp
0.001127
Ar 2rh
dr
The flow rate for a crude oil system is expressed in surface units (Stock
tank barrels, STB) rather than reservoir units. Using symbol Qo to represent
the oil flow rate as expressed in STB/day, then:
q= Bo.Qo
Bo is the oil formation volume factor (bbl/STB). Then darcy equation can be
expressed in STB/day to give:
Q o .B o
k dp
0.001127
2rh
o dr
Integrating above equation

between two radii,p 2r 1 and r2, when pressures
r2
Qo dr
k
are p1 and p2 gives:
( 2h )
r1
0.001127 (
p1
o .B o
)dp
Cont
75
For incompressible system in a uniform formation, above equation can be simplified to:
Qo r 2 dr 0.001127 k
2h r1 r
o .B o
Performing the integration gives:
Qo
p2
dp
p1
0.00708 kh( p2 p1 )
o Bo ln( r2 / r1 )
The two radii of interest are the wellbore radius rw and the external or drainage radius re, then:
Qo
Qo = oil, flow rate, STB/day
pe = external pressure, psi
pwf = bottom-hole flowing pressure, psi
k = permeability, md
o = oil viscosity, cp
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
h = thickness, ft
re = external or drainage radius, ft
rw = wellbore radius, ft
0.00708 kh( pe pw )
o Bo ln( re / rw )
p pwf [
Qo.Bo.o
r
] ln( )
0.00708kh
rw
Example 5
76
An oil well in the nameless field is producing at a stabilized

rate of 600 STB/day at a stabilized bottom-hole flowing
pressure of 1800 psi. Analysis of the pressure buildup test
data indicates that the pay zone is characterized by a
permeability of 120 md and a uniform thickness of 25 ft. The
well drains an area of approximately 40 acres. The following
additional data is available as well. Calculate the pressure
profile (distribution) and list the pressure drop across 1 ft
intervals from rw to 1.25 ft, 4 to 5 ft, 19 to 20 ft, 99 to 100 ft,
and 744 to 745 ft.
rw
0.25 ft
Bo
1.25
bbl/STB
40 acres
2.5 cp
Solution Example 5
Solution Example 5
Radial flow of slightly compressible

79
fluids
Flow rate is dependent on pressure:
q qref [1 c ( pref p )]
q
k P
V r ( )r
Ar x
Applying the above
darcy law for
radial
flow
gives:
q equation
qref [1 c( Prefinto
P )]
k dP
Ar
2rh
qref
0.001127
dr
Pe
dr
dP
0
.
001127
Separating the variables
in
the
above
equation
integrating over the
Pwf 1 c ( P and
2kh rw r
ref P )
re
length of the porous medium gives:

qref [
OR
1 c( Pe Pref )
0.00708kh
] ln[
]
re
1
c
(
P
P
)
wf
ref
c ln( )
rw
0.00708kh
Q
[
] ln[ 1 co ( pe pwf
)] c =pref.
Where qoref is oil flow rate
pressure
isothermal
Choosing
compressibility
the
coefficient,
bottom
psi1
re at a reference
Q
=
oil
flow
rate,
STB/day
o .Bo .cop. ln(
) reference pressure and expressing the flow
hole flow pressure
wf as the
rw
rate in STB/day gives:
o
Example 6
80
The following data are available on a well in the red

river field. Assuming a slightly compressible fluid,
calculate the oil flow rate. Compare the result with
that of incompressible fluid.
rw
0.25 ft
Bo
1.25 bbl/STB
2.5 cp
Pe
2506 psi
Pwf
1800 psi
re
745 ft
0.12 D
25 ft
Co
2510-6 psi-1
Solution Example 6
Radial flow of compressible

82
gases
For a radial gas flow, the Darcys equation can be expressed as:
qgr
0.001127 (2 .r.h)k dp
g
dr
(1)
qgr = gas flow rate at radius r, bbl/day
r = radial distance, ft
h = zone thickness, ft
g = gas viscosity, cp
p = pressure, psi
0.001127 = conversion constant from Darcy units to field units
The gas flow rate is usually expressed in scf/day. Referring to the

gas flow rate at standard condition as Qg, the gas flow rate qgr
under pressure and temperature can be converted to that of
standard condition by applying the real gas equation-of-state to
both conditions, or:
5.615q gr P
zRT
Qg Psc
z sc RTsc
Psc
zT
(
)(
)Qg q gr (2)
5.615Tsc
P
OR
Cont
83
Where:
psc = standard pressure, psia
Tsc = standard temperature, R
Qg = gas flow rate, scf/day
qgr = gas flow rate at radius r, bbl/day
p = pressure at radius r, psia
T = reservoir temperature, R
z = gas compressibility factor at p and T
Psc
zT
0.001127 (2 .r.h)k dP
(
)(
)
Q
g
zsc = gas compressibility factor at standard
condition 1.0
5.615Tsc P
g
dr
Combination of equation 1 and 2 gives:
TQg dr
2P
)
0.703(
)dP
kh r
g z
Cont
84
Integrating previous equation from the wellbore conditions (rw and

pwf) to any point in the reservoir (r and p) gives:
P
TQg dr
2P
(
)
0
.
703
(
rw kh r
Pwf g z )dP
r
Imposing Darcys Law conditions on above equation, i.e.:

Steady-state flow which requires that Qg is constant at all radii
P
TQg formation
r
2implies
P
Homogeneous
which
that k and h are constant
kh
) ln(
rw
) 0.703
Pwf
g z
)dP
P 2P
Pwf
2P
2P
(
)
dP
(
)
dP
(
)dP
Pwf
0
0
And expanding
gthe
z integration
g zgives:
g z
P
Cont
85
Combination gives:
P 2P
Pwf
2P
TQ
r
( g ) ln( ) 0.703[ (
)dP (
)dP]
0
0
kh
rw
g z
g z
The
2P
g z
)dP
is called the real gas potential or real gas
pseudopressure and it is usually represented by m(p) or (psy).

P
2P
g z
m(p) (
Thus:
)dP
Therefore previous equation can be written in terms of the real gas

potential
give:
TQto
r
g
kh
) ln
rw
0.703( w ) OR
QgT
0.703kh
ln
r
rw
Cont
The flow rate can be given by:
86
Qg
In the particular case when r = re, then:
0.703kh( w )
r
T ln
rw
Qg
Where:
e = real gas potential as evaluated from 0 to pe, psi2/cp
w = real gas potential as evaluated from 0 to Pwf, psi2/cp
h = thickness, ft
re = drainage radius, ft
rw = wellbore radius, ft
Qg = gas flow rate, scf/day
0.703kh( e w )
r
T (ln e )
rw
Qg
kh( e w )
r
1422T (ln e )
rw
The gas flow rate is commonly expressed in Mscf/day:
kh( r w )
Q
g
The above equation can be expressed in terms of the average
reservoir pressure
pr
re
1422T [(ln
) 0.5]
instead of the initial reservoir pressure pe as:
rw
Example 7
87
The following PVT data from a gas well in the Anaconda

Gas Field is given below. The well is producing at a
stabilized bottom-hole flowing pressure of 3600 psi.
The wellbore radius is 0.3 ft. The following additional
data is available. Calculate the gas flow rate in
Mscf/day.
k
65 md
Pe
4400 psi
15 ft
re
1000 ft
600 R
88
Approximation of the
gas
flow
rate
The exact gas flow rate as expressed by the different forms of Darcys
Law, i.e., can be approximated by removing the term outside the
integral as a constant. It should be pointed out that the zg is
considered constant only under a pressure range
of < 2000 psi.
Pe
kh
2P
Qg [
]
(
)dP
Therefore:
re Pwf
1422T ln(
rw
g .z
kh( Pe Pwf
)
Removing the term andQgintegrating
gives:
1422T ( g.z ) avg ln(
re
)
rw
Pwf 2 Pe2
P
The term (g. z)avg is evaluated
at an average pressure
2
defined by the following expression:
that is
Example 8
89
Using the data given in previous example, resolve for the gas flow rate by using the
pressure-squared method. Compare with the
exact method (i.e., real gas potential
solution).
The applications of the unsteady90

state flow
Basic transient flow equation:

In unsteady-state flow condition, the flow rate into an element of volume of a
porous media may not be the same as the flow rate out of that element.
Accordingly, the fluid content of the porous medium changes with time. The
variables in unsteady state flow additional to those already used for steadystate flow, therefore, become time, porosity and total compressibility.
a. Continuity Equation: The continuity equation is essentially a material
balance equation that accounts for every pound mass of fluid produced,
injected, or remaining in the reservoir.
b. Transport Equation: Basically, the transport equation is Darcys equation
in its generalized differential form. The continuity equation is combined with
the equation for fluid motion (transport equation) to describe the fluid flow
rate in and out of the reservoir.
Cont
c. Compressibility Equation: The fluid compressibility

equation (expressed in terms of density or volume) is used in
formulating the unsteady-state equation with the objective of
describing the changes in the fluid volume as a function of
pressure.
d. Initial and Boundary Conditions: There are two boundary
conditions and one initial condition required to complete the
formulation and the solution of transient flow equation. The two
boundary conditions are:
The formation produces at a constant rate into the wellbore.
There is no flow across the outer boundary and the reservoir

behaves as if it were infinite in size, i.e., re = .
91
Cont
92
The element has a width of dr and is located at a distance of r

from the center of the well. The porous element has a
differential volume of dV.
The rate of mass flow into an element minus the rate of mass
flow out of the element during a differential time t must be
equal to the mass rate of accumulation during that time
interval
Cont
Where:
= velocity of flowing fluid, ft/day

= fluid density at (r + dr), lb/ft3
A = Area at (r + dr)
t = time interval, days
Ar entering
dr )his:
The area of element at the
dr 2 ( r
side
Combination of these
two )equation
gives:
(mass
in 2t ( r dr ) h(v ) r dr
SEPTEMBER

2012
Mass entering the volume

during
( Mass )element
in t ( Av ) r dr
time interval t:
93
Cont
94
Adopting the same approach as that of the leaving mass

gives:
(mass)out 2 .t.r.h(v ) r
Total Accumulation of Mass:
Differentiating the above equation with respect

Total mass accumulation:
t dV [( )t t ( )t ]
dV
2rh
dr
to r gives:
SEPTEMBER
V r 2 hby:
The volume of some element with a radius of r is given

2012
Mass leaving the volume element:
Cont
95
Total mass accumulation (2rh)dr.[( )t t ( )t ]
Replacing terms of general equation with those

of the calculated relationships gives:
1
1
[(
r
dr
)(
v
r
(
v
)
]
[( )t t ( )t ]
r dr
r
Dividing(rthe
)dr above equation by
t (2rh)dr and
simplifying, gives:
OR
[r (v )] ( )
r r
t
(B)
Where:
= porosity
= density, lb/ft3
= fluid velocity, ft/day
SEPTEMBER
2h(r dr )t ( )r dr 2hrt ( )r (2rh)dr.[( )t t ( )t ]

2012
Substituting for dV yields:
Cont
96
2012
The previous equation (B) is called the continuity equation and it

provides the principle of conservation of mass in radial coordinates.
Darcys Law is essentially the basic motion equation, which states

that the velocity is proportional to the pressure gradient (p/r):
v (5.615)( 0.001127)
v (0.006328)
Combining above equation

with continuity
0.006328
k
p
equation gives:
r
k p
r
[ ( r ) ] ( )
r
r
t
Expanding the right-hand side by taking the indicated derivatives

partialderivative
eliminates the porosity from the

term on the
( )
t
t
t
right-hand side:
SEPTEMBER
k p
r
Cont
1 compressibility
Porosity is related to the formation

by
cf
p
the following:
Applying the chain rule of differentiation

t
p t to /t:
0.006328 k
p
p
p
( ( r ) ) .c f
Finally, substituting
r
rthe
above
r relation
t into
t previous
equations gives:
SEPTEMBER
c
f
Substituting into previous equation gives:
t
t

2012
97
Radial Flow of Slightly

Compressible Fluids
The general partial differential equation used to describe the

0.006328
k
pdirection
p in porous
flow of any fluid flowing

in a[ radial
media
( r ) ] .c f
r
r
t
t
can be expressed by: r
.006328k and
p
p arepconstant
Assuming that the[ 0permeability
] (r ) viscosity
.c f
r distance
r
ranges.
r
t leads
t to:
over pressure, time, and
This
k p
2 p p 2
p
p
0.006328( )[
2 ( )
] .c f ( ) ( )( )
rule
r r in the
r above
r relationship
p
tyields:t p
Using the chain
SEPTEMBER
k p
2 p p
p
0.006328( )[
2
] .c f ( ) ( )
r equation
r
r gives:
r r
t
t
Expanding the above

2012
98
Cont
Dividing the above expression by the fluid density gives:
k 1 p 2 p p 2 1
p
p 1
0.006328( )[
2 ( ) (
)] .c f ( ) (
)
r r r
r p
t
t p

2012
99
1
p
Recalling that the compressibility of any fluid is related to its densityc by:
Combining the above two equations gives:
k 2 p 1 p
p
p
p
0.006328( )[ 2
c( )2 ] .c f ( ) .c( )
r
r r
r
t
t
p 2
)
r
The following term is very small and can be ignored:

Therefore:
k 2 p 1 p
p
p
0.006328( )[ 2
] .c f ( ) .c( )
r
r r
t
t
Define total compressibility, ct, as:
ct c c f
SEPTEMBER
c(
Cont
Combining the above two equations and rearranging gives (t is expressed in
2 p 1 p
ct
days):
r r
p
0.006328k t
The above equation is called diffusivity equation and it is one of the most
important equations in petroleum engineering. The equation is particularly
used in analysis well testing data where the time t is commonly recorded in
hours. The equation can be rewritten as:
r = radial position, ft
p = pressure, psia
ct = total compressibility, psi1
t = time, hrs
= porosity, fraction
= viscosity, cp
2 p 1 p
ct
p
r 2 r r 0.000264k t
SEPTEMBER
Where:

2012
10
0
Cont
10
1
where co, cw and cg refer to the compressibility of oil, water,

and gas, respectively, while So, Sw, and Sg refer to the
fractional saturation of these fluids.
The use of ct, simply accounts for the compressibility of any

immobile fluids which may be in the reservoir with the fluid
that is flowing.
0.000264 k
expressed as:
Diffusivity constant ( ) can be
c
t
The diffusivity equation can then be

2 p written
1 p 1 in
p a more
2
convenient form as:
r
r r t
SEPTEMBER
When the reservoir contains more than one fluid, total

ct co So cw S w cg S g c f
compressibility should be
computed as:

2012
Cont
Before discussing and presenting the different

solutions to the diffusivity equation, it is necessary to
summarize the assumptions and limitations used in
developing the diffusivity equation:
1. Homogeneous and isotropic porous medium
2. Uniform thickness
3. Single phase flow
4. Laminar flow
5. Rock and fluid properties independent of pressure
SEPTEMBER
The diffusivity equation as represented by previous

equation is essentially designed to determine the
pressure as a function of time t and position r.

2012
10
2
Example 9
Show that the radial form of Darcys equation is
the solution to below equation.
2 p 1 p
0
2
r
r r

2012
10
3
SEPTEMBER
The applications of the

pseudosteady-state flow
As soon as the pressure disturbance reaches all drainage boundaries, it
ends the transient (unsteady-state) flow regime. A different flow regime
begins that is called pseudosteady (semisteady) state flow.
Consider below figure, which shows
a well in radial system that is producing

at a constant rate for a long enough
drainage area. During this semisteady-state
flow, the change in pressure with time
becomes the same throughout the drainage
area. Section B in this figure shows that
the pressure distributions become
paralleled at successive time periods
SEPTEMBER
period that eventually affects the entire

2012
10
4
Cont
The constant referred to in the above equation can be
1 dV
obtained from a simple materialc balance
using the
V dp
definition of the compressibility, thus:
cVdp dV
Arranging:
cV
Differentiating with respect to
dp
q
QoBo
dt
24cVthe pressure
24cV
Expressing
relation in psi/hr gives:
OR
time
dp t: q
dt
cV
decline
Where:
q = flow rate, bbl/day
rate
dp/dt
in the above
Qo
= flow
rate, STB/day
dp/dt = pressure decline rate, psi/hr
V = pore volume, bbl
SEPTEMBER
dp
dV
q
dt
dt

2012
10
5
Cont
For a radial drainage system, the pore volume is given by (where A

= drainage area, ft2):
2
V
.re h.
Ah
5.615
5.615
Combining previous two equations give:

dp
0.23396q
0.23396q
2
dt
ct . .re .h.
ct . Ah.

2012
10
6
The reservoir pressure declines at a higher rate with an increase in the fluids
production rate
The reservoir pressure declines at a slower rate for reservoirs with higher total
compressibility coefficients
The reservoir pressure declines at a lower rate for reservoirs with larger pore
volumes
SEPTEMBER
Examination of the above expression reveals the following

important characteristics of the behavior of the pressure decline
rate dp/dt during the semisteady-state flow:
Example 10
An oil well is producing at a constant oil flow
rate of 1200 STB/day under a semisteady-state
flow regime. Well testing data indicate that the
pressurehis(ft)
declining
at a constant
rate of 4.655
ct (psi-1)
(%)
Bo
psi/hr. The following additional data is available:
(bbl/STB)
12 106
25
15
1.3

2012
10
7
SEPTEMBER
Radial flow of slightly

compressible fluids
2 p 1 p
cexpressed
p
t
The diffusivity equation
can
be
by:
2
r
r r
0.006328k t
dp
0.23396q 0.23396q
For the semisteady-state

flow,
the term (p/t)
dt
ct Ah
ct re 2 h
is constant and it can be expressed by:
diffusivity equation gives:

OR
2 p 1 p
887.22q
r r
Akh
r 2
SEPTEMBER
ct
2 p 1 p
0.23396q
(
)(
)
0.000264k into
ct Ah
r 2 r r equation
Substituting previous
the

2012
10
8
Cont
The previous equation can be expressed as:
2 p 1 p 887.22q
r 2 r r
(re) 2 kh
Integrating the above equation gives:

2
r
Where c1 is the constant of the integration and can be

evaluated by imposing the
no-flow boundary condition
141outer
.2q
c1
[i.e., (p/r)re = 0] on the above
relation to give:
kh
SEPTEMBER
p
887.22q r
( ) c1
r
(re) 2 kh 2
p 141.2q 1
r
( 2)
r
kh
r re

2012
10
9
Pi
re
Combining the above
two
gives:
141.expressions
2 q
1
r
dp
Integrating again: Pwf
kh
( r re
rw
) dr
Cont
11
0
2
re
Performing the above integration

141.2and
q assuming
re
1
pi pwf
[ln( ) ]
negligible gives:
kh
rw 2
A more appropriate form of the above is to solve for the

Q =flow
flow rate, STB/day
B = formation volume factor,
rate, to give:
Where
bbl/STB
SEPTEMBER
0.00708kh( pi pwf )
Q
re
B[ln( ) 0.5]
rw
is

2012
rw
The volumetric average reservoir pressure Pr is commonly

used in calculating the liquid flow rate under the semisteadystate flowing condition. Introducing the Pr into previous
AND
equation
gives:
r
0.00708
kh( p p )
Q
B[ln(
wf
re
) 0.75]
rw
ln(
rw
) 0.75 ln(
0.471re
)
rw
DIFFUSIVITY EQUATION
k
c
is the diffusivity constant.

It measures the speed of pressure disturbance
propagation through reservoir so that equilibrium is
attained.
The larger the value, the more rapid the pressure
equilibration.
Compressibility in the equation is the saturation weighted compressibility
c co S o cw S w c f
co oil compressibility (typically 10x10-6 psi-1)
cw water compressibility (typically 3x10-6 psi-1)
cf formation compressibility (typically 4x10-6 psi-1)
So oil saturation
Sw connate waer saturation
Solutions of Diffusivity Equation
In order to solve the pde, we need to:
Define initial conditions (specifying P i at every point)
Define boundary conditions (inner and outer boundary)
The solutions can be grouped according to the flow regime

they represent:
Steady State
System with a flow across outer boundary,

such that p 0
t
Semi Steady
State
Transient
State
System with a no flow outer boundary, such

that p C
t
Infinite acting system such that
p
f (r , t )
t
Most complex situation (represents the

state during well testing)
CTR vs CTP
Basic solutions can be divided into 2 types:
Constant Terminal Rate (CTR)
dq/dt constant, pressure varies with time
Constant Terminal Pressure (CTP)
Constant bottomhole pressure, flowrate varies
Will not be covered in the course
SOLUTIONS TO BE
EXAMINED:
CTR Solution for radial model- Steady

State
There is a flow across the outer boundary to replace fluid
produced at the well
Pressure at outer boundary, Pe remains constant
q re
Pe Pw
ln
2kh rw
q re 1

P Pw
ln
2kh rw 2
In field units and
with skin factor:
141.2qsc Bo
P Pw
kh
re 1
S
ln
rw 2
CTR Solution for radial model

Semi Steady State
There is no influx across the outer boundary
Constant rate of change of pressure (dp/dt)
Sometimes called pseudo-steady or quasi-steady state.
q re 1

Pe Pw
ln
2kh rw 2
q re 3

P Pw
ln
2kh rw 4
In field units and
with skin factor:
141.2qsc Bo
P Pw
kh
re 3
S
ln
rw 4
CTR Solution for radial model - Transient State
The reservoir appears infinite acting applicable for short

period (well testing hours)
Pressure and rate of its changes are functions of distance

and time
The solution is usually referred as the line source constant

terminal rate solution.
The reservoir pressure at radial position r at time t is given by:
Pr ,t Pe
q
Ei x
4kh
cr 2
x
4kt
cr 2
x
0.00105kt
Exponential
Integral
In field units: Pr ,t Pe 70.6qsc Bo Ei x

kh
If wellbore pressure is of interest:
70.6qsc Bo
Pe Pw
kh
1
ln 1.78 x
Transient Solution
The Ei(-x) function can be obtained from available graph.
Provide quick evaluation of pressure drop expected when

drilling a new well in producing field
if x 0.01 , the Ei(-x) function can be approximated as
Ei( x) ln( 1.78 x)
The line source solution is valid if the

flowing time, t (hrs)
2
2
5
948
*
cr
3
.
8
*
10
*
cr
e
where
w
T1 t T2
T1
& T2
k
k
70.6qsc Bo
Pe Pw
kh
ln
2
S
1.78 x
Dimensionless Variables
Dimensionless Radius
Dimensionless Time
r
rD
rw
kt
t D 0.000264
crw 2
Dimensionless Pressure
kh
Pi Pw
PD 0.00708
qsc Bo
Skin Factor
While drilling a well, must have higher wellbore pressure than

reservoir pressure
To prevent inflow of reservoir fluid
Thus it is inevitable that some of the drilling fluid enters the

formation which could cause:
Plugging of pore spaces/perforations
Clay swelling
Reduce
permeability
This would create a damaged zone in the vicinity of the

wellbore.
Can give significant effect, need to be quantified
This impairment (or enhancement) can be modeled through
the concept of a mechanical skin.
Skin effect on Pressure Drawdown
q re
S
Pe Pw
ln
2 kh rw
Pe
Pwf
P
Pskin
rw
ra
re
If well is undamaged, pressure drawdown is lower

than if the well were damaged (dashed line)
Skin will increase pressure drawdown.
Definition by Van Everdingen;
Pskin
q
141.2q
S Pskin
S
2 kh
kh
Where S is the mechanical skin factor (dimensionless).
ra
S
1 ln
rw
ka
Skin Factor
ASSUMPTION OF CONSTANT PERMEABILITY AROUND WELLBORE
FORMATION DAMAGE DURING DRILLING AND COMPLETION AND
DURING PRODUCTION CAUSES ALTERATION OF PERMEABILITY
AROUND WELLBORE.
EXTENDS UP TO A FEW FEET FROM WELLBORE INTO RESERVOIR
IF RESERVOIR FRACTURED (NATURALLY OR BY WORKOVER)
PERMEABILITY MAY BE INCREASED
EI FUNCTION FAILS TO ACCOUNT FOR THESE CONDITIONS
SKIN ZONE DEFINED AS ZONE AROUND WELLBORE WITH
ALTERED PERMEABILITY
bottomhole fowing pressure, P wf
pressure profile if no skin zone was present
P wf(no skin)
actual pressure profile through skin zone
Pskin
skin zone
Pwf(skin)
permeability, k s
rw
permeability, k
rs
radius, r
Pskin = Pwf(skin) - Pwf(no skin)
Skin Factor
Incorporating skin factor, the steady state inflow equation
becomes:
q re
S
Pe Pw
ln
2 kh rw
The effect of skin can be further quantified using Productivity

Index (PI).
PI is a direct measure of well performance.
Desirable to have PI as large as possible
(small pressure drawdown) PI 0.00708 kh
PI
q
oil rate ( stb / d )
Pe Pw Pr essure drawdown ( psi )
r
Bo ln e S
rw
Skin Factor
PI
0.00708 kh
re
Bo ln S
rw
PI increases if S negative.
S negative
Well stimulated (acidising, fracturing)
S positive
Well damaged, consider well stimulation
S=0
No damage in the well
S can be found from Pressure Buildup Test.
Skin effect on Pressure Drawdown

q
Pe
Pwf
S -ve
P
S +ve
rw
ra
re
Fluid flow
In summary, fluid flow depends on :
reservoir geometry
reservoir fluids
reservoir properties
Two methods to represent fluid flow:
analytical solutions to diffusivity equation

approximation methods to diffusivity equation i.e.
using finite difference/ finite element
simulations
Visualization of fluid flow
How important are computers?

New technologies allow us to gather better, more complete data and
build clearer images of the reservoir
Awellproducesoilataconstantflowrateof15stocktankcubicmetresperday
(stm3/d). Use the following data to calculate the permeability in milliDarcys
(mD).
Data
porosity,
19%
formationvolumefactorforoil,Bo
1.3rm3/stm3
netthicknessofformation,h,
40m
viscosityofreservoiroil,
22x103Pas
wellboreradius,rw
0.15m
externalradius,re
350m
initialreservoirpressure,Pi
98.0bar
bottomholeflowingpressure,Pwf 93.5bar
qreservoir =qstocktankxBo
1bar =105Pa
1pas
=1000cp
Unsteady State Flow Regimes

DIMENSIONLESS VARIABLES
NORMALISED PARAMETERS
DEFINE SOLUTION TO DIFFUSIVITY EQUATION FOR
DIMENSIONLESS VARIABLES
DETERMINE SOLUTION
r
dimensionless
radius,RESERVOIR
Dr
:
CALCULATE
SPECIFIC
rD VALUES FROM
rw
DIMENSIONLESS SOLUTION
tD
kt
crw2
dimensionless time, Dt
dimensionless
pressure, PD
: PD (rD , t D ) (
2kh
)(Pi Pr, t )
q
(at a dimensionless radius and dimensionless time)
where
r = radius in question
rw= wellbore radius
k = permeability
t = time in question
=porosity
=viscosity
c = compressibility
h = thickness of the reservoir
P=i initial reservoir pressure
P=r,t pressure at the specified radius and time
then the radial diffusivity equation becomes
1 PD PD
rD
rD rD rD
t D
(3.11)
There are other definitions of dimensionless variables, such as

dimensionless external radius
Unsteady State Solution

CTR SOLUTION OBTAINED IN SEVERAL FORMS
WITH DIFFERENT ASSUMPTIONS AND
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSES
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
WELLBORE PRESSURE AND FLOW RATE RESPONSE

PRESSURE DECLINE NORMALLY DIVIDED INTO 3
SECTIONS DEPENDING ON THE VALUE OF FLOWING
TIME AND RESERVOIR GEOMETRY.
INITIALLY, TRANSIENT SOLUTION INFINITE ACTING
RESERVOIR CASE RESERVOIR APPEARS INFINITE IN
EXTENT
LATE TRANSIENT BOUNDARIES START TO AFFECT
THE RESPONSE
SEMI-STEADY STATE OR PSEUDO-STEADY STATE
PRESSURE PERTURBATION AFFECTING ALL PARTS OF
THE RESERVOIR NO INFLUX FROM AQUIFER
Hurst and van Everdingen Solution

CTR SOLUTION IN 1949
SOLVED RADIAL DIFFUSIVITY USING LAPLACE TRANSFORM FOR BOTH
CTR AND CTP
SOLUTION DESCRIBES PRESSURE DROP AS FUNCTION OF TIME AND
RADIUS FOR FIXED VALUES OF RE AND RW ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTIES.
DIMENSIONLESS VARIABLES AND PARAMETERS:

PD = F(TD,RD,RED)
WHERE
TD = DIMENSIONLESS TIME
RD = DIMENSIONLESS RADIUS
RED = RE/RW = DIMESIONLESS EXTERNAL RADIUS.
IF THE RESERVOIR IS FIXED IN SIZE, I.E. RED IS A PARTICULAR VALUE,
THEN THE DIMENSIONLESS PRESSURE DROP, PD, IS A FUNCTION OF THE

DIMENSIONLESS TIME, TD AND DIMENSIONLESS RADIUS, RD.
THE PRESSURE IN A PARTICULAR RESERVOIR CASE CAN THEN BE

CALCULATED AT ANY TIME AND/OR RADIUS.
ONE OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT CASES IS AT THE WELLBORE SINCE THE
PRESSURE CAN BE MEASURED ROUTINELY DURING PRODUCTION
OPERATIONS AND COMPARED TO THE THEORETICAL SOLUTIONS.
THE DETERMINATION OF A RESERVOIR PRESSURE AT A LOCATION REMOTE
FROM A WELL MAY BE REQUIRED FOR REASONS OF TECHNICAL INTEREST,
BUT UNLESS A WELL IS DRILLED AT THAT LOCATION, THE ACTUAL VALUE
CANNOT BE MEASURED.
At the wellbore radius, r=r

w (or rD=1.0)
PD = f(tD, reD)
(3.13)
2m t D
2
2t
3
e
1 ( m reD )
J
D
i.e.PD (t D ) 2 lnreD 2 2 2
2
reD
4 m 1 m (J1 ( m reD ) J1 ( m ))
(3.14)
where
mare the roots of J1 ( m reD )Y1 ( m ) J1 ( m )Y1 ( m reD ) 0
J1 and Y
are
1 Bessel functions of the first and second kind
This series has been evaluated for several values of dimensionless
external radius, reD, over a wide range of values of dimensionless time,
tD. The results are presented in the form of tables (from Chatas, AT, A
Practical Treatment of non-steady state Flow Problems in Reservoir
Systems, Pet. Eng. August 1953) in Well Testing by J Lee, SPE
Textbook series, Vol 1. A summary of the use of the tables for constant
terminal rate problems is as follows in Table 1.
Table
2
Presents
i
ii
Validfor
P D asafunctionoft
t
P 2
P 0.5(lnt
D
iii
D <1000(fromtable)
infiniteactingreservoirs
fort D <0.01(anextensionofthetable)
D
0.80907) for100<t
D <0.25r eD
(anextensionofthetable)
iv
P D asafunctionoft
D <0.25r eD
P D asafunctionoft
D for1.5<r
ii
2 t
0.25
r2 1
3r
4
eD
P
D
D
2
eD
lnr
eD
eD
eD
<10(fromtable)
eD
2r 2 1
4 r 2 1
eD
finitereservoirs
finitereservoirs,butif
thevalueoft D issmaller
thanthatlistedfora
givenvalueofr
eD then
thereservoirisinfinite
actingandthereforetable
2isused.
finitereservoirs
eD
for 25 t D and0.25r
iii
(fromtable)
4r 4 lnr
eD
2t
3
4
2
eD
2
for r eD > 1
finitereservoirs
Table1HurstandVanEverdingensolutionstotheConstantTerminalRateCase
These equations are applicable to a well flowing at a constant rate

or to a reservoir and aquifer with a constant flowrate across the oil
water contact.
Most problems involving flow at a well involve relationship 2(iii) and
3(iii);
most problems involving aquifer influx involve Tables 8 and 9.
It can be seen that in using these solutions, the pressure can be
calculated anywhere in the reservoir as long as the flow rate is
known.
If the pressure in the reservoir at a location where the flow rate is
unknown is required then an alternative solution is needed (the
Line Source solution).
Example2.Areservoirataninitialpressure,Piof83.0barproducestoa
well 15cm in diameter. The reservoir external radius is 150m. Use the
following data to calculate the pressure at the wellbore after 0.01 hour,
0.1hour,1hour,10hoursand100hoursofproductionat23stm3/d
Data
porosity,
21%
formationvolumefactorforoil,Bo
1.13rm3/stm3
netthicknessofformation,h
53m
10x103Pas
wellboreradius,rw
0.15m
externalradius,re
150m
83.0bar
permeability,k
140mD
compressibility,c
0.2x107Pa1
Solution
UsingHurstandVanEverdingenssolutionforCTR,the
dimensionlessexternalradiusandthedimensionlesstimeare
calculatedandusedwiththe
appropriatesolutiontodeterminethe
dimensionlesspressuredrop.Thedimensionlesspressuredropis
thenturnedintotherealpressuredropfromwhichthebottomhole
flowingpressureiscalculated.
re 150.00
reD
1000
rw
0.15
-15
kt
140x10 xt
0.148t
tD
2
crw 0.21x10x10-3x0.2x107x0.152
time
time
tD
PD
(hour)
(second) (0.148t)
0.01
36
5.3 1.3846
0.10
360
53.3 2.4146
1.00
3600
532.8 3.5473
10.00
36000
5328.0 4.6949
100.00
360000
53280.0 5.8462
expression
table2
table2
table2
0.5(lntD+0.80907)
0.5(lntD+0.80907)
thebottomholeflowingpressure,Pwfis
qBo
Pwf Pi
PD
2kh
3
Pwf at 0.01hour
23x10x10 x1.13
5
83.0x10
x1.3846=82.1x10 Pa
15
24x3600x2140x10 x53
5
i.e.Pwfat0.01hour=82.1bar
similarlyfortherestofthetimes
time
(hour)
0.00
0.01
0.10
1.00
10.00
100.00
PD
0
1.3846
2.4146
3.5473
4.6949
5.8462
Pwf
(bar)
83.0
82.1
81.4
80.7
80.0
79.2
Line Source Solution

ASSUMES RADIUS AT WELLBORE IS VANISHINGLY SMALL
ALLOWS CALCULATIONOF THE PRESSURE IN THE RESERVOIR USING THE FLOWRATE AT
THE WELL
DISADVANTAGE IS THAT ONLY WORKS IN TRANSIENT FLOW REGIME
BARRIERS ALTER APPLICABILITY OF LINE SOURCE SOLUTION
HOWEVER, PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION ALLOWS COMBINATION OF DIFFERENT WELLS
AND USE OF IMAGINARY WELLS TO COMPENSATE FOR THE EFFECT OF BARRIERS
Inconstantterminalrateproblems,theflowrateatthewellwasgivenby
2rhk P

q
r r w
andforalinesource,thefollowingboundaryconditionmusthold:
lim p
q
fortime,t>0.
r
r 0 r 2 kh
(3.15)
UsingtheBoltzmanTransformation
c P
1 P
cr 2
y
andsubstitutingintothediffusivityequation( r r(r r )= k t )
4kt
gives
d 2 p dp
y 2
(1 y) 0
dy
dy
withtheboundaryconditions
ppiasy
lim
p
q
2y
y 0 y 2 kh
If p'
y
dp
then
dy
dp'
(1 y)p' 0
dy
Separatingthevariablesandintegratinggives
lnp=lnyy+C
dp C1 y
p'
e
i.e.
dy
y
(3.16)
lim
p
q
lim
2y
2C1 e y
whereCandC1areconstantsofintegration.Since
y 0 y 2 kh y 0
q
andequation3.16becomes
4kh
dp
q e y
whichisintegratedtogive
dy 4 kh y
then C1
q e y
p
dy C2 or
4 kh y
q e y
p
dy C2
4 kh y y
whichcanberewrittenas
q
p
Ei(y) C 2
4 kh
ApplyingtheboundaryconditionthatppiasythenC2=piandthelinesource
solutionisobtained:
pi p(r, t)
q
cr 2
Ei(
4kh
4kt
(3.17)
ThetermEi(y)istheexponentialintegralofy(theEifunction)whichisexpressedas
e y
Ei( y)
dy .
y
y
Itcanbecalculatedfromtheseries
yn
Ei( y) lny
n!n
where=0.5772157(EulersConstant).OninspectionofthesimilaritiesintheEi
functionandthelnfunction,itcanbeseenthatwheny<0.01, Ei( y) lny andthe
powertermscanbeneglected.Therefore,
Ei( y) ln(1.781y) = ln(y )
( 1.781 = e e 0 .5 7 7 2 15 7)
Solutionstotheexponentialintegralcanbecodedintoaspreadsheetandusedwiththe
linesourcesolution.Practically,theexponentialintegralcanbereplacedbyasimpler
logarithmfunctionaslongasitisrepresentativeofthepressuredecline.Thelimitation
25cr 2
thaty<0.01correspondstotime,t,fromthestartofproduction t
.
k
Theequationcanbeappliedanywhereinthereservoir,butisofsignificanceatthe
wellbore(i.e.forwelltestanalysis)wheretypicalvaluesofwellboreradius,rw,and
reservoirfluidandrockparametersusuallymeansthaty<0.01veryshortlyafter
productionstarts.Thereforethelinesourcesolutioncanbeapproximatedby
q
cr 2
P Pi
(ln
)
4kh
4kt
or,sinceln(y)=ln(y1)
P Pi
q
4kt
(ln
2 )
4kh
cr
andifthepressureinthewellboreisofinterest,
q
4kt
Pwf Pi
(ln
2)
4kh
crw
(3.18)
(3.19)
ThevaluesofexponentialintegralhavebeencalculatedandpresentedinMatthewsand
RusselsMonographandareproducedinTable4.Thetablepresentsnegativevalues,i.e.
Ei(y).Forvaluesofy0.01,thelnapproximationcanbeused.Forvalues>10.9,the
declineinpressurecalculatedisnegligible.
Range of Application and Limitations

of Use
EI FUNCTION HAS LIMITATIONS ON APPLICATION
CANNOT REPRESENT THE INITIAL FLOW INTO WELLBORE (LINE SOURCE)
RESERVOIR MUST BE INFINITE ACTING
ANALYSIS OF REAL RESERVOIRS HAS SHOWN THAT EI FUNCTION VALID FOR
I) FLOWING TIME> 100CRW2/K
RW IS WELLBORE RADIUS. CONSTANT 100 DERIVED FROM RESERVOIR RESPONSE
II) TIME< CRE2/4K
RE IS EXTERNAL RADIUS, AFTER THIS TIME, INFINITE ACTING PERIOD HAS ENDED
Example3.Awellandreservoiraredescribedbythefollowingdata:
Data
porosity,
19%
3
3
formationvolumefactorforoil,Bo 1.4rm /stm
netthicknessofformation,h
100m
3
1.4x10 Pas
9
1
compressibility,c
2.2x10 Pa
permeability,k
100mD
wellboreradius,rw
0.15m
externalradius,re
900m
400bar
159
3
3
wellflowrate(constant)
159stm /day=
stm /second
24x3600
skinfactor
Determinethefollowing:
1)thewellboreflowingpressureafter4hoursproduction
2)thepressureinthereservoirataradiusof9mafter4hoursproduction
Solution
The line source solution is used to determine the pressures required at

the specified radii and at the specified times (i.e. using the flowrate
measuredatthewellbore,thepressuresattheotherradiiandtimesare
calculatedbythelinesourcesolution).SIunitswillbeusedsotimewill
beconvertedtoseconds.Checksaremadetoensurethat:
i)therehasbeenadequatetimesincethestartofproductiontoallowthe
linesourcesolutiontobeaccurate
ii)thereservoirisinfiniteacting.
Thereafter, the choice of Ei function or ln approximation to the Ei

functionhastobemade.
ACheckEiapplicability
linesourcenotaccurateuntil
100crw2
t
k
100x0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x109 x0.152
t
100x10 15
t>13.2s
timeis4hours,thereforelinesourceisapplicable.
BCheckreservoirisinfiniteacting
cre2
thereservoirisinfiniteactingifthetime, t
4k
0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x109 x900 2
i.e. t
15
4x100x10
t<1185030s
t<329hours
thereforelinesourcesolutionisapplicable.
1)thebottomholeflowingpressureafter4hoursproduction,P wfat4hours
i)checklnapproximationtoEifunction
25crw2
thelnapproximationisvalidifthetime, t
k
3
9
2
25x0.19x1.4x10 x2.2x10 x0.15
t
15
100x10
t>3.3s
thereforelnapproximationisvalid.
qBo crw2
(taking account of the conversion from stock tank to
ln
ii) Pwf Pi
4 kh 4kt
reservoir conditions via the formation volume factor for oil, B o, flow rates in reservoir
3
m /sandpressuresinPascal).
q Bo
159x1.4x103 x1.4
=28703
15
4kh 24x3600x4 x100x10 x100
cr 2 0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 r 2
9 2
=101597x10 r
15
4kt
4x100x10 x4x3600
Pwf
=400x10 +28703xln(1.781x101597x10 x0.15 )

5
=400x10 356249
=39643751Pa
=396.4bar
2)thepressureafter4hoursproductionataradiusof9mfromthewellbore
25cr 2
k
25x0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x109 x92
t
15
100x10
t>11850s
t>3.3hours
thereforelnapproximationisvalid.
2
qBo cr
ln
ii) P Pi
4 kh 4kt
reservoirconditionsviatheformationvolumefactorforoil,B o andalsothefactthatthe
radius,r,isnowat9mfromthewellbore).
qBo
159x1.4x103 x1.4
=28703
15
4kh 24x3600x4 x100x10 x100
cr 2 0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 r 2
9 2
=101597x10 r
15
4kt
4x100x10 x4x3600
=400x10 +28703xln(1.781x101597x10 x9 )
5
=400x10 121209
=39878791Pa
=398.8bar
25cr 2
k
25x0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x109 x502
t
100x10 15
t>365750s
t>101.6hours
thereforelnapproximationisnotvalidandtheEifunctionisused.
2
qBo cr
Ei
ii) P Pi
4 kh
4kt
reservoirconditionsviatheformationvolumefactorforoil,Bo andalsothefactthatthe
radius,r,isnowat50mfromthewellbore).
q Bo
159x1.4x103 x1.4
=28703
15
4kh 24x3600x4 x100x10 x100
cr 2 0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 502
=0.254
4kt
4x100x1015 x4x3600
P
=400x10 +28703xEi(0.254)
Ei(0.254)=1.032(bylinearinterpolationofthevaluesinTable4)
5
P
=400x10 +28703x1.032
5
=400x10 29622
=39970378Pa
=399.7bar
25cr 2
k
25x0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x109 x502
t
15
100x10
t>365750s
t>101.6hours
thereforelnapproximationisnotvalidandtheEifunctionisused.
2
qBo cr
Ei
ii) P Pi
4 kh
4kt
reservoirconditionsviatheformationvolumefactorforoil,B o andalsothefactthatthe
radius, r, is now at 50m from the wellbore and the time is now 50hours after start of
production).
q Bo
159x1.4x103 x1.4
=28703
15
4kh 24x3600x4 x100x10 x100
cr 2 0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 502
=0.020
15
4kt
4x100x10 x50x3600
P
=400x10 +28703xEi(0.020)
Ei(0.020)=3.355
5
P
=400x10 +28703x3.355
5
=400x10 96300
=39903700Pa
=399.0bar
Summary
time
(hours)
0
4
4
4
50
radius
(m)
all
0.15
9.00
50.00
50.00
pressure
(bar)
400.0
396.4
398.8
399.7
399.0

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Fluid Flow in Porous Media

Fluid Flow in Porous Media

UNDERSTAND FORCES RESPONSIBLE FOR

BE AWARE OF MODELS AVAILABLE TO

ASSESS FLOW PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR

INTRODUCE CONCEPTS USED IN WELLTESTING

Darcys Law is fundamental to reservoir engineering

Quantifies the rate of flow of fluids through porous

Objective to understand mechanism of fluid

Similar in concept to flow in pipes

Dimensions give rise to scaling problem capillary

TWO METHODS TO REPRESENT FLUID FLOW:

ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS TO DIFFUSIVITY

APPROXIMATION METHODS TO DIFFUSIVITY

century French engineer

Flow rate (cm3/s)

Transport equation implying velocity is proportional

Assumptions of Darcys Law

fluids exhibit laminar flow

fields, high gas/oil rate give turbulent flow

one phase present

Darcys Law for multiphase flow

are no chemical reactions between fluid

not account microscopic effect

in structure of porous medium violate Darcys

Darcys Law for Multiphase

Linear Flow of Incompressible 11

Flow occurs through a constant cross-sectional area A,

No flow crosses the sides, top, or bottom.

Applying darcy equation:

Steady State Linear Flow (Fluids)

Steady State Linear Flow (Gases)

Darcys Law for Radial

For fluid flow to occur, a pressure gradient must be established

Steady State Radial Flow

Radial Flow Pressure Profile

Initial steady state, no flow

Flow initiated at constant rate

Pressure profile develops

Pressure disturbance reaches outer boundary

Well shut in and pressure builds in well

Steady state, no flow

This factor will in turn affect the time taken by the

Illustrate: Reservoir well flow

Consider a water saturated reservoir rock

Response not instantaneous

Pressure changes may take days, even years to manifest

In this case, the flow regime would not be steady-state

Thus Darcys Law cannot be applied

Diffusion process need to be examined time dependent

Fluid Flow Regime

In order to produce at constant rate, we

But, the wellbore pressure, Pw will not

It takes time for its initial pressure, 4500

The time taken is the duration of a nonsteady state flow regime

With time, reservoir pressure will

High drive mechanism (gascap)

Pressure maintenance scheme

In this case, the pressure will equilibrate

Steady state flow regime

Pressure Profile with Radial Distance

Pressure Profile with time