Antenna array(as

point source
concept)
Bablu K. Ghosh

Antennas
Transmitting Antenna: Any structure
designed to efficiently radiate
electromagnetic radiation in a preferred
direction is called a transmitting antenna.
Wires passing an alternating current emit, or
radiate, electromagnetic energy. The shape
and size of the current carrying structure
determines how much energy is radiated as
well as the direction of radiation.
Receiving Antenna: Any structure designed to
efficiently receive electromagnetic radiation
is called a transmitting antenna
We also know that an electromagnetic field will
induce current in a wire. The shape and size of the
structure determines how efficiently the field is
converted into current, The shape and size also
determines from which direction the radiation is
preferentially captured.

Antenna parameters
6. Friis transmission equation.
Assuming that both antennas are in the far
field region and that antenna A transmit to
antenna B. The gain of the antenna A in
the direction of B is Gt, therefore the
average power density at the receiving
antenna B is

S av

Pt
Gt
2
4 R

The power received by the antenna B is:

2
Pt
PG
2
t t Gr
Pr S av Ae ,r
Gt
Gr
2
4 R 2 4
4 R
The Friis transmission equation (ignoring polarization and impedance mismatch) is:

Pr Gt Gr 2 Ae ,t Ae,r

2 2
2
Pt 4 R
R

Near and far field

Antennas Directivity
Directivity:
The directive gain,, of an antenna is the ratio
of the normalized power in a particular
direction to the average normalized power, or

D ,

Pn ,

Pn , avg

Where the normalized powers average value

taken over the entire spherical solid angle is
P , d

P ,

4
d
n

avg

The directivity, Dmax, is the maximum directive gain,

Dmax D , max

Dmax

4
p

Pn , max
Pn , avg

Using Pn , max 1

Resolution and
Directivity
Directivity and resolution: Usually

resolution of an antenna is it`s half the

BW between first nulls.
Often

FNBW/2 Resolution and it is approximately

equal to HPBW

So, A = ( FNBW/2) ( FNBW/2) two planes of the

field
If number of point source N, the receiving antenna
can resolve, N= 4/ A,
Directivity, D= 4/ A, so number of point source in
the sky is equal to directivity of the antenna.

Antenna Arrays
Antenna arrays are formed by
assembling identical (in most cases)
radiating elements such as dipoles
for example.
In the diagram below is shown an
antenna array with its elements along
the z axis such that the distance between
each two successive elements is equal to
d.

Antenna arrays are characterized by their

array factor which is given by the formula

Antenna Arrays: Benefits

Possibilities to control electronically
Direction of maximum radiation
Directions (positions) of nulls
Beam-width
Directivity
Levels of side lobes

using standard antennas (or antenna

collections) independently of their radiation
patterns
Antenna elements can be distributed along
straight lines, arcs, squares, circles, etc.

Antenna arrays
Consist of multiple (usually identical) antennas

(elements) collaborating to synthesize radiation

characteristics not available with a single antenna.
They are able
to match the radiation pattern to the desired coverage area
to change the radiation pattern electronically (electronic

scanning) through the control of the phase and the amplitude of

the signal fed to each element
to adapt to changing signal conditions
to increase transmission capacity by better use of the radio
resources and reducing interference

Complex & costly

Antenna arrays
It is not always possible to design a single antenna with the radiation pattern
needed.
An antenna array is a cluster of antennas arranged in a specific physical
configuration (line, grid, etc.).
Each individual antenna is called an element of the array.
The excitation (both amplitude and phase) applied to each individual element
may differ.
The far field radiation from the array in a linear medium can be computed by
the superposition of the EM fields generated by the array elements.
Say, a linear array (elements are located in a straight
line) consisting of two elements excited by the signals
with the same amplitude but with phases shifted by .

Antenna arrays
The individual elements are characterized by
their element patterns F1(,).
i.. At an arbitrary point P, taking into account
the phase difference due to physical
separation and difference in excitation, the
total far zone electric field is:

E (r ) E1 (r )e j 2 E2 (r )e j
Field due to antenna 1

Here:

Field due to antenna 2

kd cos

The phase center is assumed at the array center. Since the elements are identical

e j 2 e j
E (r ) 2 E1 (r )
2

2 E1 (r ) cos
2

whereE1=E
2

Relocating the phase center point only changes the phase of the result but not its
amplitude.

array
If no phase difference then, =0, then = kd Cos. To
normalized or to make a maximum value unity; 2E1(r) = 1,
Then E (r) = Cos{(kd Cos)/2}; if the source is /2 apart or
d= /2, then
E (r) = Cos( /2Cos) , since k=2/, wave vector.
The plot of the field pattern of E
versus is represented as
follows in fig-a. The parallel
shift of the point source to
maintain respective distance the
same will show the same pattern

array
thenE1 ej
ii. But when the source of one ref. E1 and other
the total field from the two sources as given
E = E1 + E1 ej = 2E1 ej/2 Cos/2 where = kd Cos
Now normalizing the value 2E1 =1, we get
E= ej/2 Cos/2 = Cos/2 angle(/2)
iii. But when they are in opposite phase the previous equ.
Become
E = E1 ej/2 - E1 e-j/2
= 2jE1 Sin {(kd Cos)/2} ; Now normalized or to make a
maximum value unity; 2E1 = 1, j operator shows 90 shift from
the reference field as shown in fig.(b) in previous page.

Array
Then E = Cos{(kd Cos)/2}; if the source is /2 apart or d=
/2, then
E = Sin( /2Cos)
The direction of field pattern, m maximum field are
obtained when /2 Cos m = (2k +1)/2 where k= 0,1,2
.. For k=0 and m = 0 and 180 , the null direction 0
are given by
/2 Cos m = k
For k=0 and = 90 , the half power direction are given
by
/2 Cos = (2k +1)/4,
For k=0 and = 60 , 120 , the figure for field pattern
is shown before in fig-b.

Antenna arrays
The radiation pattern can be written as a product of the radiation pattern of an
individual element and the radiation pattern of the array (array pattern):

F ( , ) F1 ( , ) Fa ( , )
where the array factor is:

kd cos
Fa ( , ) cos

Here is the phase difference between two antennas. The array factor depends
on the array geometry and amplitude and phase of the excitation of individual
antennas. If no phase difference then, =0
The total far-field radiation pattern |E| of the array (array pattern)
consists of the original radiation pattern of a single Hertzian dipole
multiplying with the magnitude of the array factor |AF|.
This is a general property of antenna arrays and is called the
principle of pattern multiplication.

Antenna arrays:
Example
Example 10.7: Find and plot the array factor for 3 two-element antenna arrays,
that differ only by the separation difference between the elements, which are
isotropic radiators. Antennas are separated by 5, 10, and 20 cm and each
antenna is excited in phase. The signals frequency is 1.5 GHz.
The separation between elements is normalized by the wavelength via

kd 2 d
The free space wavelength:

Normalized separations
are /4, /2, and . Since
phase difference is zero
( = 0) and the element
patterns are uniform
(isotropic radiators), the
total radiation pattern F()
= Fa().

c
3 108

20cm
f 1.5 109

Antenna arrays
Another method of modifying the radiation pattern of the array is to change
electronically the phase parameter of the excitation. In this situation, it is
possible to change direction of the main lobe in a wide range: the antenna is
scanning through certain region of space. Such structure is called a phasedarray antenna.
We consider next an antenna array with more identical elements.
There is a linearly progressive
phase shift in the excitation
signal that feeds N elements.
The total field is:

E (r ) E0 (r ) 1 e j ... e j ( N 1)
Utilizing the following relation:

1 qN
q

1 q
n 0
N 1

Antenna arrays
the total radiated electric field is

1 e jN
E E0
1 e j

Considering the magnitude of the electric field only and using

1 e
we arrive at

where

2 je

j 2

sin 2sin
2
2

E ( ) E0 sin

sin

kd cos

is the progressive phase difference between the elements. When = 0:

E ( ) Emax NE0

Antenna arrays
The normalized array factor:

Fa ( )

N sin
2
sin

The angles where the first null occur in the numerator of above equation define
the beam width of the main lobe. This happens when

k 2 N ,k isinteger
Similarly, zeros in the denominator will yield maxima in the pattern.

Antenna arrays
Field patterns of a
four-element (N = 4)
phased-array with
the physical
separation of the
isotropic elements
d = /2 and various
phase shift.

The antenna
radiation pattern
can be changed
considerably by
changing the
phase of the
excitation.

4
4

2
4

3
4

3
4

2
4

4
4

Antenna arrays
Another method to analyze behavior of a phase-array is by considering a nonuniform excitation of its elements.
Let us consider a three-element array shown. The elements are excited in phase
( = 0) but the excitation amplitude for the center element is twice the amplitude
of the other elements. This system is called a binomial array.

Because of this type of excitation, we can assume that this three-element array
is equivalent to 2 two-element arrays (both with uniform excitation of their
elements) displaced by /2 from each other. Each two-element array will have a
radiation pattern:

cos
2

F1 ( ) cos

Antenna arrays
Next, we consider the initial three-element binomial array as an equivalent twoelement array consisting of elements displaced by /2 with radiation patterns of
previous equ. The array factor for the new equivalent array is also represented by
the equ. Therefore, the magnitude of the radiated field in the far-zone for the
considered structure is:

cos
2

No sidelobes!!

F ( ) F1 ( ) FA ( ) cos 2

Element pattern F1()

Array factor FA()

Antenna pattern F()

Antenna arrays
(Example)
Example 10.8: Using the concept of multiplication of patterns (the one we just
used), find the radiation pattern of the array of four elements shown below.

This array can be replaced with an array of two elements containing three subelements (with excitation 1:2:1). The initial array will have an excitation 1:3:3:1
and will have a radiation pattern as:

cos cos 2
cos cos 3
cos
2
2
2

F ( ) cos

Array factor

Element
pattern

Antenna
array
pattern

Alternative-N element
array

N element

N element.

N element array.

N array contd.

N array contd.

N array contd.

array

Array

Antenna arrays
Continuing the process of adding elements, it is possible to synthesize a
radiation pattern with arbitrary high directivity and no side lobes if the excitation
amplitudes of array elements correspond to the coefficients of binomial series.
This implies that the amplitude of the kth source in the N-element binomial array
is calculated as

N!
Ik
,k 0,1,..., N
k !( N k )!

It can be seen that this array will be symmetrically excited:

I N k I k
Therefore, the resulting radiation pattern of the binomial array of N elements
separated by a half wavelength is

F ( ) cos

N 1

cos
2

Antenna arraysimpedance
During the analysis considered so far, the effect of mutual coupling between the
elements of the antenna array was ignored. In the reality, however, fields
generated by one antenna element will affect currents and, therefore, radiation of
other elements.
Let us consider an array of two dipoles with lengths L1
and L2. The first dipole is driven by a voltage V1 while
the second dipole is passive. We assume that the
currents in both terminals are I1 and I2 and the following
circuit relations hold:

Z11 I1 Z12 I 2 V1
Z 21 I1 Z 22 I 2 0

where Z11 and Z22 are the self-impedances of antennas

(1) and (2) and Z12 = Z21 are the mutual impedances
between the elements. If we further assume that the
dipoles are equal, the self-impedances will be equal too.

Antenna arrays
In the case of thin halfwavelength dipoles, the selfimpedance is

Z11 73.1 j42.5

The dependence of the mutual
impedance between two identical
thin half-wavelength dipoles is
shown. When separation
between antennas d 0, mutual
impedance approaches the selfimpedance.
For the 2M+1 identical array
elements separated by /2, the
directivity is:

I n

n M

n M

I n2

Antenna arrays:
Example
Example 10.9: Compare the directivities of two arrays consisting of
three identical elements separated by a half wavelength for the:
a) Uniform array: I-1 = I0 = I1 = 1A;
b) Binomial array: I-1 = I1 = 1A; I0 = 2A.
We compute from (10.51.1):
Uniform array:

1 1 1
D

3 4.77dB

111

Binomial array:

1 2 1

16

4.26dB
1 4 1
6

The directivity of a uniform array is higher than of a binomial array.

Array
of isotropic
point
sources beam shaping
Field Pattern of 2 isotropic
sources
Power pattern of 2 isotropic sources
Power pattern of 2 isotropic sources

90

90
120

120

60

60

90
120

1.5
150

150

30

210

210
240

300

Pn

210

240

240

d1

E i

90
120
150

180

210

240

90 deg

330

300
270
i

300
270

330
330

Pn
180

210
210

d1

30

0.5
180

240

60

30

30

45 deg

Power pattern of 2 isotropic sources

1.5

150

Pn

60

60

300
270

120

120

330

300
270
i

Field Pattern of 2 isotropic sources

d
Power pattern of 2 isotropic sources
90
90

330

0 deg

150

30

180

330

270

d1

150

0.5
180

180

30

E i

Pn

60

240

300
270

d1

135 deg

Antenna Arrays
In the diagram below is shown an
antenna array with its elements
along the z axis such that the
distance between each two
successive elements is equal to d.

Antenna arrays are

characterized by their
array factor which is
given by the formula

N the number of elements

making the array, k = 2/ ,
is the polar angle and is the
difference of phase between any
two successive elements
forming the array.
The main objective is to explore
how each of the parameters N,
d and affect the radiating
pattern of the array.

Antenna Arrays
1 - Start the applet by clicking on the button "click here to start". On the

left panel, you may use any of the sliders to change N the number of
elements making the array, d the distance between the elements and
the phase .
2 - Set d = 0.25 (this 0.25*wavelength) , to 0 and increase N slowly.
Note that the array is more directional.

End-Fire Array
3 - Set N = 10, d = 0.25 (this is 0.25*wavelength) and = kd = 2*Pi*0.25
= 0.5Pi. The main beam (maximum radiation) is directed toward = 180
degrees along the z axis which is also the axis of the array. If you
change to -0.5Pi, the main beam is directed toward 0 degrees along the
z axis. For these values of we have end-fire radiation.

Endfire Array
Main Beam along the Array

90

120

60

150

30

2
1

180

210

330

240

300
270

Array of isotropic point sources end-fired

y

2d
cos 1
( )

n
n

2n

sin
2

sin

En ( ) sin

end-fired array,n elements power pattern

Field End-fired, n isotropic sources

90
120

60
0.8
0.6

150

30

0.4
Ef i

0.2
180

210

330
240

( X Y Z)

300
270
i

n 10

108 deg

d1

n 10
A 0.713

d 0.25
D 17.627

Antenna Arrays
Broadside Array
4 - Set N = 10, d = 0.25 (this 0.25*wavelength) and = 0 .
The main beam (maximum radiation) is directed toward =
90 degrees normal to the z axis which is also the axis of the
array. For this value of we have broadside radiation.
Change Phase For Scanning
5 - Set N = 10, d = 0.25 (this 0.25*wavelength) and change
slowly starting from 0. Note that the direction of maximum
radiation changes. The maximum radiation can be oriented
in any direction. This is the basic principle of electronic
scanning using antenna arrays.

Broadside Array
Main Beam orthogonal to the
Array
90

120

60

150

30

2
1

180

x
210

330

240

300
270

Array of isotropic point sources centre-fed

array
y

( )

1 2
En ( )
n sin / 2

sin

Field Pattern of n isotropic sources

Field Pattern of n isotropic sources

90
120

90
60

120

0.8
30

0.6

150

0.4
Ef i

Ef i

210

330
240

0.2
180

300

67.5 deg

210

330
240

270
i

n3

30

0.4

0.2
180

60
0.8

0.6

150

2d
cos( )

300
270
i

d 0.5

n8

0 deg

d 0.5

Pattern multiplication
The total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar point sources
is the product of the individual source pattern and the pattern of an array of
isotropic point sources having the same locations,relative amplitudes and
phases as the non-isotropic point sources.
Primary field pattern

Secondary field pattern

90

90

120

60

120

0.8
30

Ef2i

210

330
240

180

1 104 deg

Ef i

330
240

300
270
i

d1 0.3

n2

2 180 deg

30

0.4

210

300

60
0.6

150

0.2

270
i

n2

30

0.4

0.2
180

120
0.8

0.6

150

0.4
Ef1i

90
60

0.8

0.6

150

Total field pattern

0.2
180

210

330
240

300
270
i

d2 0.6

Total pattern of two primary sources

(each an array of two isotropic sources)
replacing two isotropic sources (4
sources in total).

Patterns from line and area distributions

When the number of discrete elements in an array becomes large,
it may be easier to consider the line or the aperture distribution as
continuous.
line source:
1

l
E (u ) f ( x)e juxdx
2 1

l
sin( ) , l length, anglefrom normal to line

2-D aperture source:

E ,

j sin x cos y sin

f
(
x
,
y
)
e
dx dy

aperture

f ( x, y ) aperture field distributi on

Antenna Array Patterns

ET = F(,I0) (a0+a1ejkdcos+a2ej2kdcos + ) =

EF*AF
Element Factor (EF) is the field of a lone
element.
Only Array Factor (AF) can be controlled
electronically, by changing the magnitude and
phase of {ai}.
For a beam to look at direction ,k=2/ r1
set: progressive phase =
angle of. ai+1 kd
angle
of .ai = -kd cos()
cos
|ai| = 1

Phase shift due to

physical separation.

r2

Element Factors
Common array elements: Dipole, Patch
Other arrays: 2-dim. or even 3-dim. arrays
Element is chosen to be isotropic over region of

interest
Element can be chosen for its properties in other
dimensions
Parallel

Collinear

AF

AF

Examples: 16-Antenna Array

Uniform Array: mag.= 1, progressive phase = , uniform
spacing
We only need phase shifters!
Broadside: = 0
D=12 dB

N = 16
kd =

Isotropic
radiators

Phased: =-kd cos(60)

D=12 dB

Number of Antennas
Directivity = D0=Umax/U0 ~ AFmax2 = N
Half Power Beamwidth(HPBW) ~ 2*arccos(1-/Nd)
Nulling of interferers reduces main beam gain (a little).
Physical size of antenna array is not an issue
Circuit complexity grows as N

D0
N

D0

HPBW

6 dB

26

9 dB

10

12

10.8 dB

16

12 dB

32

15 dB

3.5

(Uniform Array)

HPBW