Chapter 1: Working Stresses (Part I)

CHAPTER 1 : WORKING STRESSES (PART I)
Todays Objectives:
Students will be able to:
1. explain the concepts of normal, shear, bearing and thermal stress.
Topics:
Stress
Normal Stress
Shear Stress
Strain
Normal strain
Failure theories
1
DEM 303 Design of Machine Elements 1
Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz
Application
This steel tie rod is used to

The pin on this tractor is
suspend a portion of a staircase, subjected to double shear.
and as a result, it is subjected to
tensile stress.
Concepts of Stress
DEFINITION : Stress is the internal resistance offered by a unit
area of the material from which a member is
made to an externally applied load.
FORMULA :
force F
stress( / )
UNIT (SI)
area
: N/mm2 or MPa
N/m2 or Pa
Type of Stress
Normal Stress : stress which acts perpendicular, or normal to, the
()
cross section of the load-carrying member.
: can be either compressive or tensile.
Shear Stress : stress which acts tangent to the cross section of
()
the load-carrying member.
: refers to a cutting-like action.
General State of Stress

Figure shows the state of stress acting around a chosen point in
a body
Stress components are defined for the planes cut parallel to the
x, y and z axes. For equilibrium, equal and opposite stresses are
exerted on the hidden planes.
The combination of forces generated by the stresses
must satisfy the conditions for equilibrium:
Fx Fy Fz 0
Mx My Mz 0
Consider the moments about the z axis:

M z 0 xy A a yx A a
xy yx
similarly, yz zy
and
yz zy
Examples of Axially Loaded Bar

Usually long and slender structural members
Typical examples : truss members, hangers, bolts
Assumptions :
1. Uniform deformation: Bar
remains straight before and
after load is applied, and
cross section remains flat or
plane during deformation
2. In order for uniform
deformation, force P be
applied along centroidal axis
of cross section C
Average Normal Stress Distribution

FRz Fz ;
dF dA
A
P A
P
= average normal stress at any point

on cross sectional area
P = internal resultant normal force
A = x-sectional area of the bar
Procedure of Analysis
Use equation of = P/A for x-sectional area of a member when
section subjected to internal resultant force P
Internal Loading
Section member perpendicular to its longitudinal axis at pt
where normal stress is to be determined
Draw free-body diagram
Use equation of force equilibrium to obtain internal axial
force P at the section
Average Normal Stress
Determine members x-sectional area at the section
Compute average normal stress = P/A
Example
Given: Bar ABCD with a constant width of 35 mm and a

thickness of 10 mm.
Find: The maximum average normal stress in the bar when it is
subjected to the loading as shown.
Solution
Internal loading
Normal force diagram

By inspection, largest
loading area is BC,
where PBC = 30 kN
Maximum average normal stress

BC =
PBC
A
30(103) N
(0.035 m)(0.010 m)
= 85.7 MPa
Average Shear Stress

Forces P and P are applied transversely to the
member AB.
Corresponding internal forces act in the plane
of section C and are called shearing forces.
The resultant of the internal shear force
distribution is defined as the shear of the
section and is equal to the load P.
The corresponding average shear stress is,
ave
P
A
Equilibrium
For the equilibrium condition, force and moment equilibrium

requires the shear stress acting on the top face of the element, to be
accompanied by shear stress action on the three other faces.
Example of Shear Stress

Single Shear
ave
P F
A A
Double Shear
P F
ave
A 2A
Procedure of Analysis
The equation avg=V/A is used to compute only the average shear
stress in the material.
Internal Shear
Section member at the point where the avg is to be determined
Draw free-body diagram
Calculate the internal shear force V
Average Shear Stress
Determine sectioned area A
Compute average shear stress avg = V/A
Example
Given: The bar with a square cross section for which the depth
and thickness are 40 mm. An axial force of 800 N is
applied along the centroidal axis of the bars crosssectional area.
Find: The average normal stress and average shear stress acting
on the material along
(a) section plane a-a and
(b) section plane b-b
Solution
Part (a)
Internal loading
Based on free-body diagram, resultant
loading of axial force, P = 800 N
Average stress
Average normal stress,
P
800 N
= 500 kPa
=
=
A (0.04 m)(0.04 m)
No shear stress on section, since shear
force at section is zero.
Part (b)
Internal loading
+ F = 0;
x
+ Fy = 0;
800 N + N sin 60 + V cos 60 = 0

V sin 60 N cos 60 = 0
Or directly using x, y axes,

+
Fx = 0;
N 800 N cos 30 = 0
Fy = 0;
V 800 N sin 30 = 0
Average normal stress

N
=
692.8 N
=
(0.04 m)(0.04 m/sin 60)
= 375 kPa
Average shear stress

V
avg =
400 N
=
(0.04 m)(0.04 m/sin 60)
= 217 kPa
Bearing Stress on Floor

DEFINITION : Bearing stress is
normal stress produced by the
compression of one surface against
another.
A floor on which a leg of a heavy
machine is set, tending to cause
an indentation in the floor (called
a bearing load)
force F
stress( )
area A
Bearing Stress in Connections

Bolts, rivets, and pins create
stresses on the points of
contact or bearing surfaces of
the members they connect.
The resultant of the force
distribution on the surface is
equal and opposite to the
force exerted on the pin.
Corresponding average
force intensity is called the
bearing stress,
P
P
b
A td
20
Normal Strain
DEFINITION : the elongation or contraction of a line segment per
unit of length
Consider line AB in figure below
unit :
After deformation, s changes to s
dimensionless
FORMULA (average normal strain) :
s s
avg =
s
total deformation
original length
If normal strain is known, final length of a short line

segment in direction of n after deformation.
s (1 + ) s
Hence, when is positive, initial line will elongate,
if is negative, the line contracts
21
Example of Normal Strain

P
A
2
2L L
P
stress
A
normal strain
L
2P P
2A A
L
Shear Strain
DEFINITION : the change in angle that occurs between two line
segments that were originally perpendicular to one another
This angle is denoted by (gamma) and measured in radians (rad).
Consider line segments AB and AC originating from same point A in
a body, and directed along the perpendicular n and t axes
After deformation, lines become curves, such that angle between
them at A is
FORMULA :
nt lim '
2 B A
CA
If is smaller than /2, shear strain

is positive, otherwise, shear strain is
negative
2.2 Strain
Factor of Safety
Factor of safety considerations:
uncertainty in material properties
uncertainty of loadings
uncertainty of analyses
FS Factor of safety
fail
fail
ultimate stress number of loading cycles
FS
allow allow allowable stress types of failure

In all the equations, F.S. is chosen maintenance requirements and
deterioration effects
to be greater than 1, to avoid
potential for failure.
importance of member to
Specific values will depend on
integrity of whole structure
types of material used and its
risk to life and property
intended purpose
influence on machine function
Structural members or machines
must be designed such that the
working stresses are less than the
ultimate strength of the material.
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (TENSILE

Standard tensile test involves subjecting
a circular bar of uniform cross section to
a gradually increasing tensile load until
the failure occurs
Tensile test is carried out to compare
the strengths of various materials
Change in length of a selected gauge
length
of
bar
is
recorded
by
extensometers
A graph is plotted with load vs
extension or stress vs strain
A Limit of proportionality; It is the point where the linear

nature of the stress strain graph ceases
B Elastic limit; It is the limiting point for the condition
that material behaves elastically, but hooke's law does not
apply . For most practical purposes it can be often
assumed that limit of proportionality and elastic limits are
the same
Beyond the elastic limits, there will be some permanent
deformation or permanent set when the load is removed
C (Upper Yield point), D (Lower yield point) Points after
which strain increases without correspondingly high
increase in load or stress
E Ultimate or maximum tensile stress; Point where the
necking starts
F Fracture point
% elongation is an indication of very important

property of the material called ductility.
The ductility is defined as the property by virtue

of which a material can be drawn into wires which
means length can be increased and diameter can
be reduced without fracture.
A ductile material deforms plastically before it
fails.
The property opposite to ductility is called
brittleness. A brittle material does not show
enough plastic deformation. Brittle materials are
weak
tensile
stress, though they are
stronger
DEM 303
Design ofunder
Machine Elements
1
Example:
A metal wire is 2.5mm diameter and 2m long. A force of 12N is
applied to it and it stretches 0.3mm. Assume the material is elastic.
Determine the following:
i.The stress in the wire,
ii.The strain in the wire,
Offset Method to Determine Yield

Strength
1. Normally, a 0.2 % strain
is chosen.
2. From this point on the
axis, a line parallel to
initial straight-line portion
of stress-strain diagram is
drawn.
3. The point where this line
intersects the curve
defines the yield strength.
Theory
Most engineering materials exhibit a linear relationship between stress and
strain within the elastic region
Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676 using springs, known as Hookes law
E
E : modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus [Unit : Pa]
Modulus of elasticity is a mechanical property that indicates the stiffness of a
material
Materials that are very stiff, such as steel [Est = 200 GPa] have large E values,
while spongy materials such as vulcanized rubber [Er = 0.70 MPa] have low
values
IMPORTANT
1) Modulus of elasticity E, can be used only if a material has linear-elastic
behavior.
2) Also, if stress in material is greater than the proportional limit, the stressstrain diagram ceases to be a straight line and the equation is not valid
THEORY OF
FAILURES
Stress-Analysis is performed on a component to

determine
The required size or geometry (design)
an allowable load (service)
cause of failure (forensic)
For all of these, a limit stress or allowable stress value

for the component material is required.
Hence, a Failure-Theory is needed to define the onset
or criterion of failure
THEORY OF
FAILURES
Occurs if a component can no longer function as intended.

Failure Modes:
yielding: a process of global permanent plastic deformation.
Change in the geometry of the object.
low stiffness: excessive elastic deflection.
fracture: a process in which cracks grow to the extent that the
component breaks apart.
buckling: the loss of stable equilibrium. Compressive loading
can lead to bucking in columns.
THEORY OF
FAILURES
The failure of a statically loaded member in
uni-axial tension or compression is relatively
easy to predict.
One can simply compare the stress incurred
with the strength of the material.
When the loading conditions are Complex (i.e.
biaxial loading, sheer stresses) then we must
use some method to compare multiple stresses
to a single strength value.
These methods are known failure theories
NEED FOR FAILURE

THEORIES
To design structural components and

calculate margin of safety.
To guide in materials development.
To determine weak and strong
directions.
MAXIMUM NORMAL STRESS

THEORY
this theory postulates, that failure will occur in the

structural component if the maximum normal
stress in that component reaches the ultimate
strength, u obtained from the tensile test of a
specimen of the same material.
Thus, the structural component will be safe as
long as the absolute values of the principle
stresses 1 and 2 are both less than u:
-u
1 = U and 2 = U
2
u
u
-u
This theory deals with brittle materials only.

The maximum normal stress theory can be
expresses graphically as shown in the figure. If the
point obtained by plotting the values 1 and 2 of
the principle stress fall within the square area
shown in the figure, the structural component is
safe.
MAXIMUM SHEARING
STRESS THEORY
This theory is based on the observation

that yield in ductile materials is caused by
slippage of the material along oblique
surfaces and is due primarily to shearing
stress.
A given structural component is safe as
long as the maximum value max of the
shearing stress in that component remains
smaller than the corresponding value of the
shearing stress in a tensile test specimen of
the same material as the specimen starts
to yield.
For a 3D complex stress system, the max
shear stress is given by:
max = (1-2)
On the other hand, in the 1D stress system
as obtained in the tensile test, at the yield
and 12=0, therefore:DEM 303limit,
Design ofMachine
1= YElements
MAXIMUM SHEARING STRESS THEORY

(CONT.)
Thus,
1
1
Y
and
max 1 - 2
2
2
1
1
Y 1 - 2
2
2
1 - 2 Y 1 and 2 have opposite signs
max
1 Y
1 and 2 have same signs
2 Y
Graphically, the maximum shear stress criterion

requires that the two principal stresses be within
the green zone as shown in the figure.
MAXIMUM DISTORTION ENERGY

THEORY
This theory is based on the determination of the distortion

energy in a given material, i.e. of the energy associated with
changes in shape in that material (as opposed to the energy
associated with changes in volume in the same material).
A given structural component is safe as long as the maximum
value of the distortion energy per unit volume in that
material remains smaller than the distortion energy per unit
volume required to cause yield in a tensile test specimen of
the same material.
The distortion energy per unit volume in an isotropic
material under plane stress is:
1
2
2
Ud
1 - 1 2 2
6G
MAXIMUM DISTORTION ENERGY

THEORY (CONT)
In the particular case of a tensile test specimen that is

starting to yield, we have:1 Y , 2 0
and
Ud Y
2Y
6G
Thus,
2Y
1
2
2
1 1 2 2
6G 6G
2
2
2Y 1 1 2 2
This equation represents a principal stress ellipse as

illustrated in the figure
Von Mises criterion also gives a reasonable estimation of
fatigue failure, especially in cases of repeated tensile and
tensile-shear loading
PROBLEM 1
The solid shaft shown in Figure has a radius of 0.5 cm

and is made of steel having a yield stress of 360 MPa.
Determine if the loadings cause the shaft to fail
according to Tresca and von mises theories.
1 cm
15 kN
3.25 Nm
SOLUTION
P
15
Calculating

19the
.10 kN stresses
2 191MPacaused
0 .5
torque
P
15
P
15
cm
by axial force and
kNkN 191
Tc 3.25 0.5
19
.10
MPa
19
.
10
2
xyx
165
.
5
MPa
cmcm 2 191MPa
A
0
.
5
.5
4
JA 0 0
.
5
Tc
3.25 0.5
Tc 2 3.25 0.5
165.5MPa
J
xy
0. 5
165.5MPa
4
J
2 0 .5
2
x
xy
165.5 MPa
191.1MPa
The
Principal
stresses

2
2
1,2 x x yy x xy y xy 2
1, 2
xy
22
2 2
2
x y
x2 2y
2
1,
191
191
0
191
191
xy 2
2
2(165
. 5()165.5)
2

2
22
2 2
95
.5
191
.1 191 0 2
191
0
2
95.5 191.1
(
165
.
5
)
1 95.6
2
1 95.26
2 286.6
.5.
2 95
286
6 191.1
1 95.6
SOLUTION ( CONTD..)
Applying Maximum Shear stress theory
1 2 y
95.6 ( 286.6) 360
382.2 360
So shear failure occurs
Applying Maximum distortion theory
95.6
No Failure
1 2 2 y
(95.6)(286.6) (286.6) 2 360 2

118677 .9 129600
2

Chapter 1: Working Stresses (Part I)

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Chapter 1: Working Stresses (Part I)

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CHAPTER 1 : WORKING STRESSES (PART I)

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

This steel tie rod is used to

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

DEM 303 Design of Machine Elements 1

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

DEM 303 Design of Machine Elements 1

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

General State of Stress

Consider the moments about the z axis:

Examples of Axially Loaded Bar

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

Average Normal Stress Distribution

= average normal stress at any point

DEM 303 Design of Machine Elements 1

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

Given: Bar ABCD with a constant width of 35 mm and a

DEM 303 Design of Machine Elements 1

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

Normal force diagram

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

Maximum average normal stress

DEM 303 Design of Machine Elements 1

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

Average Shear Stress

DEM 303 Design of Machine Elements 1

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

For the equilibrium condition, force and moment equilibrium

DEM 303 Design of Machine Elements 1

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

Example of Shear Stress

DEM 303 Design of Machine Elements 1

DEM 303 Design of Machine Elements 1

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

800 N + N sin 60 + V cos 60 = 0

Or directly using x, y axes,

Average normal stress

(0.04 m)(0.04 m/sin 60)

Average shear stress

(0.04 m)(0.04 m/sin 60)

DEM 303 Design of Machine Elements 1

Bearing Stress on Floor

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

Bearing Stress in Connections

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

If normal strain is known, final length of a short line

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

Example of Normal Strain

If is smaller than /2, shear strain

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

allow allow allowable stress types of failure

DEM 303 Design of Machine Elements 1

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (TENSILE

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (TENSILE

DEM 303 Design of Machine Elements 1

Norhaslina binti Abdul Aziz

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (TENSILE