Stratigraphy (light)

Fossils, Correlation, and Geologic Time

What kind of
ooze is this?

Ooze!!

Calcareous nannoplankton
Includes incerta sedis discoasters
Kingdom Chromista
Division Heterokonta
Class Prymnesiophycae

Radiolaria

Diatoms, Kingdom Chromista, Division

Haptophyta

Principles of Stratigraphy

The holy trinity as blessed by the Heberg bible of stratigraphy is

Lithostratigraphy, Chronostratigraphy, and Geochronology.
Lithostratigraphy, organization of strata based upon lithologic criteria.
Geochronology, abstract time units.
Chronostratigraphy, organization of strata based upon age relations timerock units Hourglass analogy--duration of sand flow is an hour, but
the sand itself
is not time

Correlation: establish equivalency

Physical correlation establish physical equivalency of unit. Dunbar and
Rodgers prefer "physical facies equivalence" "lithocorrelation" Boggs
time (temporal) correlation establish equivalence in time of stratigraphic
units; often the only meaning implied
Physical correlation Principle: Law of Superposition
Means of establishing physical correlation

gaps in the record.

Derek Ager--more gap than record.
Hiatus time gap geochronologic
Unconformity: physical break in the record.
Chronostratigraphic & lithostratigraphic
significance
Types:
1) angular unconformity
2) disconformity parallel bedding with
erosion
3) paraconformity parallel beds withno
evidence of a break
4) Nonconformity strata on nonlayered rock

BIOSTRATIGRAPHY: USING FOSSILS TO CORRELATE

index fossil, one used in correlation; what are the criteria:
narrow stratigraphic range
wide environment tolerance
unique and identifiable
zone: fundamental biostratigraphic unit
Range zone: based on ranges of one or more taxa

Interval zones are generally used in construction of biostratigraphic zones that are
used for most age correlations Berggren and Miller (1988) planktonic foraminifera

Magnetostratigraphy
using magnetic field reversals to correlate
POWERFUL method of correlation
applied to sediments and volcanics
why so powerful?
Magnetostratigraphy differs from marine magnetic anomalies:
Latter fundamental to seafloor spreading,
plate tectonics, and
construction of geological time scales

What are the sedimentation rates of the three cores shown?

B/M at <2 m (<3 m/m.y), 4.5 m (~6 m/m.y.), 15.3 m (20 m/m.y.)

Magnetostratigraphy on
DSDP/ODP Cores
provided an opportunity for
integration with pelagic
biostratigraphy, isotopic
stratigraphy
this led to the "first testable
time scale" Berggren,
Kent, Flynn, and Van
Couvering (1985)

testable because if we say

the first occurrence of some
bug is in Chron C5n (e.g.,
Neogloboquadrina acoastensis
can be checked at other
sites versus magstrat.

Slumping
interglacia
glacial
300
250
200
150
100
lo.Pleistocene
?300
mid.Pliocene
p6(indigo)
p5(orange)
p4(purple)
p3(green)
p2(blue)
p1(yellow)
G
E.huxleyi
P.lacunosa
E.huxleyiabundance
00.truncatulinoides
12.4
500
13.11
12.2
11.1
10.2
8.4
8.5
8.2
7.0
6.5
6.2
5.4
11.3
9.3
9.1
7.5
7.3
7.1
16.22
14.4
14.2
14.1
15.5
15.3
15.1
13.13
5
0
350
250
200
150
100
upperMiocene
400
903A/BCompositesection
Bruhnesmagnetozone
middlePleistocene
SPECMAPtimescale
RawSusceptibility
Site903Pleistocene
Depth,mbsf
l

Age,ka

NN15

Correlations Using
Magnetic Susceptibility
J = kH
k = MS = susceptibility
(how "magnetizable" the rocks/
sediments are)
basalt 10-1 to 10-2
Sediments 10-3 to 10-5 SI units
(dimensionless)
rapidly measure very closely spaced (cm)
on cores
"pass through" measurement
can be very useful in correlation
proxy of carbonate content
(faster and easier to measure MS)
ODP Leg 138: low carbonate,
more eolian magnetite grains,
therefore higher susceptibilty
proxy of terrigenous versus pelagic

stage 11
7
1
3
5
9

Oxygen Isotopic
Stratigraphy
Shackleton showed that there
is a large component of ice
volume in late Pleistocene
18O records.

He demonstrated that 18O

variations are synchronous
and therefore useful for
correlation oxygen isotope
"stages" (really chrons) 1, 3,
5, 7... are interglacials, 2, 4, 6,
8... are glacials. 4 is a minor
glacial. All of other major
glaciations 2, 6, 8, back to 20
are spaced roughly 100 k.y.
apart

Oxygen isotope/isotopic stratigraphy: Above the SPECMAP time scale

1) is the backbone of the Pleistocene-Recent (Quaternary) time scale and
correlations
2) is useful for correlations of older sections
3) provides a "paleo" thermometer
4) provides a proxy for global changes in ice volume

Carbon Isotopic Stratigraphy

Sr-isotopes

Major inputs:
3 primary sources of Sr input into the oceans: oceanic crust, continental crust, and
carbonate
oceanic crust (basalt) has an average 87Sr/86Sr value of 0.7030
hydrothermal circulation decreases seawater value
continental crust (granite composition) 87Sr/86Sr value of 0.720
river input (0.7111) lower due to weathering of limestones (0.707-0.709)
carbonate cycle (0.707-0.709) buffers large changes
seawater 87Sr/86Sr value is uniform at any given time
why? short mixing time of the oceans (1x103 years) relative to the long residence
time of Sr (4x106 years)
Sr/86Sr values of unaltered marine carbonates reflect seawater 87Sr/86Sr
at time of precipitation.
why? Strontium substitutes for calcium as a trace element without either strontium
isotope being preferentially substituted into the calcium site
87

Burke et al. (1982) used Sr-isotopes as a correlation tool

requires a standard seawater curve with which to correlate Sr values and
obtain dates

Burke et al. (1982)

Geochronology
Absolute ages, radiometric dates better said as
isotopic age or numerical age
Radioactivity: Bequerel (1896)
provided Kelvins missing heat
provided a means of numerical estimating ages;
chronometer of deep time
Isotopic systems generally used to date geological materials
K-Ar and Ar-Ar
U-Pb
Rb-Sr
U-Th
14

Parent

Daughter

Half life

Potassium 40
Rubidium 87
Uranium 235
Uranium 238
Thorium 232
Thorium 230
Carbon 14

Argon 40
Strontium 87
Lead 207
Lead 206
Ra 226
Ra 228
Nitrogen 14

1.25 billion
4.8 x 1010 years
704 million years
4.47 billion years
1.4 x 1010 years
75,200 years
5,730 years
1.125 of parent
0.875
0.75
0.625
0.5
0.375
0.25
amount
0
amount
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
time
0
of parent

Exponential decay (natural log function):

rapid at first, reaches an asymptote;
all follow exponential decay functions:
Radioactive decay,
heat flow (cooling),
subsidence (function of cooling)

Time Scales
Why are time scales important?
provides us with a means of evaluating the
relationships of geological data in the time domain
need estimates of rates of processes
in order to establish a precise time scale, all of the
requisite temporal correlations must be established
The time scale becomes the ruler against which all
geological events & processes are measured.

A "pure" time scale consists of numerous

radiometric dates tied to the stratigraphic
record
Only good example is the last 4.5 million
years: geomagnetic polarity time scale
(GPTS) of Cox and Dalrymple
We do not have the luxury of such numerous
dates in other parts of the record
Construction of geological time scale requires
a ruler to scale time

what is the ruler or vernier for interpolation?

biochronology: constant rate of evolution
is this assumption ridiculous?? who in their right mind would use this.
you do. e.g., 4 ammonite zones in Aptian surprisingly have the same
duration. e.g., the Kent and Gradstein (1985) Jurassic time scale that is
part of the DNAG first relatively precise Cenozoic time scale (Berggren,
1972) based largely on biochronology
magnetochronology
assumption of constant sea floor spreading rates between key
reversals
used for last 160 m.y. Berggren et al., 1985; Cande and Kent, 1992
can do magnetochronology in a sedimentary section,
but you assume constant sedimentation rates between
magnetochronozonal boundaries plug biostratigraphy, isotopic
stratigraphy into magnetostratigraphy
"radiochronology"
assume constant sedimentation rates between levels with radiometric
dates Odin 1982
astrochronology
Milankovitch pacemaker provides predicted ages for astronomically
forced geological variations

Astrochronology/cyclostratigraphy

Sedimentary cycles reflect climatic oscillations

that are ultimately controlled by the Earth's
orbital cycles.
Therefore, sedimentary cycles can be used to
construct astronomical time scales. Using this
method an astronomical time scale has been
established for the late Miocene (6.8-12.0 Ma)
to Recent. Such time scales are
fundamental to an increasing number of
applications in many disciplines.

Hilgen, F.J. and Krijgsman, W. (1999). Cyclostratigraphy and

astrochronology of the Tripoli diatomite formation
(pre-evaporite Messinian, Sicily, Italy), Terra Nova, 11, 16-22. [PDF]

Errors in time correlations

Cenozoic
Biostratigraphy
planktonic foraminifera. widely used. 0.1 m.y to 2m.y. typically 0.5 m.y.
calcareous nannoplankton. widely used. similar resolution as foraminifera
radiolarians. mostly equatorial Pacific.
diatoms. moderately used. not well calibrated to GPTS
Sr-isotopes
late Eocene-Oligocene 1 to 0.6 m.y. (at the 95% confidence interval).
Miocene-Recent
22.8 to 15.6 Ma 0.6 m.y. (1 analysis @ 95% CI) to 0.4 m.y. (3 analyses
@ 95% CI) 15.2 to ~10 Ma 1.2 m.y. (1 analysis @ 95% CI) to 0.8 m.y. (3
analyses @ 95% CI) ca. 10 and 7 Ma, poor resolution.
7-4.8 Ma 0.4 m.y. (3 analyses @ 95% CI)
4.8-2.5 Ma 1.6 Ma (3 analyses @ 95% CI)
2.5-0 Ma 0.3 m.y (3 analyses @ 95% CI)
Magnetostratigraphy
< 10 k.y. when sure of identification of reversal boundary
chrons on the order of 0.2 to 2.6 m.y. (e.g., Chron C24r) duration
hiatuses complicate record
need magnetobiostratigraphy
and circular reasoning

Astronomical chronology
18O has long been primary means of correlation for Bruhnes
resolution as fine as 5-10 k.y. (1/4-1/2 of a precessional cycle)
astronomical time scale complete for the past 10+ m.y. (back through late Miocene)
preliminary astronomical time scale for >10 Ma, 25-33 Ma
pieces being used in older record (e.g., 55-55.5 Ma)
Late Triassic has an astronomical time scale anchored to the basalts (201 Ma)
Mesozoic
Cretaceous
planktonic foraminifera widely used for Late Cretaceous
calcareous nannoplankton. widely used.
ammonites widely used throughout. zones provide better than 0.5 m.y. relative ages
when present; tied to bentonites in western Interior: true (absolute age)
chronology can approach << 1m.y. resolution
Jurassic
ammonites widely used throughout.
zones provide better than 0.5 m.y. relative ages when present
Triassic
ammonites widely used throughout
________________________________________________
Paleozoic
bunch of dead brachiopods, conodonts (eel teeth), graptolites (planktonic hemichordates),
trilobites (Cambrian), nautiloids
as 0.5 m.y. (relative time); not tied to "real time"
resolution can be as good

PLIOCENE-PLEISTOCENE TIME SCALE

PLANKTONIC FORAMINIFERA CALCAREOUSNANNOPLANKT ON

TIME
(Ma) CHRONS

Berggren (1973, 1977, this work) Martini (1971)

ATLANTIC INDO-PACIFIC
LATE

C1n

C2n
C2r

a Gt. tosaensis

PL6

1 rn

1
r
r

PL4
n

G. nepenthes

PL2 Gt. margaritae IZ

Gt. cibaoensis

1 r
n
2 r
C3n
3 nr

b G. nepenthes ISZ
Gt. tumida
a Gt. cibaoensis ISZ

4n

C3An.1n

D. altispira
Gt. pseudomiocenica IZ

Gt. margaritae

C2Ar

C3r

CN15

NN20

CN14b
CN14a

NN19

M14

Gt. lenguaensis
Gt. tumida I Z

CN13b
CN13a

NN18
NN17

NN16

PL3 Sph. seminulina IZ

Gt.miocenica Gt.pseudomiocenica
Gl.fistulosus
Gl. fistulosus
IZ
IZ

D.altispira D.altispira
PL5 Gt.miocenica Gt.pseudomiocenica
IZ
IZ

2r

C2An 2

NN21

ISZ

2r

3n
4

Gl. fistulosus -

C1r

b Gt. truncatulinoides
PRZ

1 r

N23

Bukry(1973,1975)

NN15 +
NN14
NN13

CN12d
CN12c

CN12b

CN12a

CN11b
CN11a
CN10c

NN12
NN11b

CN10b
CN10a

CN9b

MIDDLELATE MIOCENE TIME SCALE

P L A N K T O N IC F O R A M IN IF E R A

TIME CHRONS
(Ma)
C2Ar

5
6
7
8
9

C3n

1
2
3

4n

1
C3An2n

C3Ar
C3Bn
1r/n

C3Br 3r

C4n
C4r
C4An

14
15

PL1

n
r

n r

2r

1
2
3
1

n
n
r

3r

1
C5An2n
1

C5Ar
C5AAn
C5AAr
C5ABn
C5ABr

2r/n

M13

r
r
n

N
19

Gl. tumida
Gl. cibaoensis
IRZ

N18

Gl. lenguaensis - G. tumida

M12

N. mayeri N. acostaensis
IZ

M11

G. nepenthes / N. mayeri

M10

n
r

M9
M8

Gl. f. robusta Tot. RZ

Gl. f. lobata

C5Bn 2n

C5Br

Lin.Z

Gl. fohsi s.s.

N14
N13
N12

Lin.Z

N11

Gl. f. lobata
Gl. f. robusta
IZ

M7

C5ADn
1

Conc. RZ

Gl. f. robusta G. nepenthes IZ

3r

C5ACn

C5ADr

N
15

n r

M6

M5 b

Gl. peripheroacuta
Lin. Z
O. sutur. Gl. peripher.

Pr. glomerosa
Orb. suturalis
ISZ

IZ

N
10

NN14

Gl. conomiozea/
Gl. mediterranea Gl. sphericomiozea
IZ

AN
7

N. mayeri
Gl. conomioz ea
IZ

scitula
AN6 Gl.PRZ

AN N. nympha
5
TRZ

Mt8

Gl. nepenthes / N.mayeri Conc.RZ

Mt7

Gl. peripheroronda
G. nepenthes
IZ

Mt6

Orb. suturalis /
Gl. per ipheroronda
Conc. RZ

N9

N8 Mt5 b

Pr. glomerosa
Orb. suturalis
ISZ

NN13
NN12

Gl. sphericomiozea
IZ

Mt9

CALCAREOUS
NANNOPLANKT ON

Berggren (1992) Martini (1971) Bukry (1973, 1975)

Gl. puncticulata IZ

IZ

N. acostaensis Gl. extrem us/

N
a
Gl. plesiotumida 16
ISZ

(SUB)ANTARCTIC

Berggren (1985, this work)

Mt10
Gl. extrem us/
N
Gl. plesiotumida b Gl. lenguaensis 17
ISZ

2n
1

Blow
(1969)

Gl. cibaoensis
G. nepenthes
ISZ

M14

2 rn

C5r

13

TRANSITIONAL

Berggren (this work)

C5n 2n

11
12

r n

r
n
r

C3r

C4Ar
10

(SUB)TROPICAL

c
b

c
b

NN10

CN8

NN9 a&b

CN7 a&b

NN8
NN7

CN6
b

NN6

AN Gl. miozea
4
PRZ

b
a

NN5

CN4

NN4

CN3

EARLY
MIOCEN
PLANKT
ONIC FORAMINIF
C
A
LC
A
R
E
O
U
S

TIME
N
A
N
N
O
P
L
A
N
K
T
O
N
CHR
ONS Bergg
(SUB)TR
OPICAL
TRANSITIONAL
(SUB)ANT
ARCTIC
(Ma)
Blo
w
ren
or
k)
(this
Bergg
ren
wOrb
this
(1985;
or
k)Bergg
wren (1992)
Mar
tini B
(1971
ukry(1973,1975)
(1969)
Gl.
per
ipheroacuta
.sutur
alis/
C5ADn
M7
N
1
0
Lin.
Z
Gl.
per
ipheroronda
Mt6
C5ADr
n
Conc.
RZ G
1
r
O
.sutur
.
per
Gl.
ipher
.IZ
NN5
CN
M6
N9
15C5Bn
2n
l
.
m
i
o
z
e
a
Pr
.glomerosa
Pr
.glomerosa

AN4
I
Z
C5Br
Orb
.sutur
alis
Orb
.sutur
alis
b
b
N8
Mt5
M5
ISZ
ISZ
16C5Cn
1
Pr
.sicana
.glomerosa
Pr
Pr
.sicana
.glomerosa
Pr
rn
a
a
ISZ
ISZ
n
r
2
G.
bispher
ica PRSZ
G.
mioz
ea PRZ
Mt4
b
3n
Cat.
dissimilis

M4
N7
a
Gl.
bir
nageae Gl.
17C5Cr
NN4
CN
ISZ
pr
aescitula
G
l
.
p
r
a
e
s
c
i
t
u
l
a
C5Dn
Gl.
mioz
ea
AN3
Mt3
Globiger
inatella
I
Z
insueta
IZ
18C5Dr M3
N6
Catapsydr
ax
dissimilis
Conc.
RZ
C5En
NN3
CN
19C5Er
Globorotalia
G
l
.
i
n
c
o
g
n
i
t
a
incognita

Catapsydr
ax
AN2
C6n
Mt2
P
R
Z
Globorotalia
20C6r
dissimilis
M2
N5
semiv
er
a
IZ
n
1
PRZ
r
21C6An
NN2
2n
b
C6Ar
CN1
C6AAn
r
22C6AAr
Gl.
kugler
i

1
Gl.
kugler
i

n
2
r
Gq.
dehiscens
Gq.
dehiscens
n
b
b
3rrn
AN1
Mt
G
l
.
b
r
a
z
i
e
r
i
N4
Conc.
RSZ
Conc.
RSZ
1
1
C6Bn
2n
P
R
Z
23C6Br
Gd.
pr
imordius
Gd.
pr
imordius
n
1
a
a
NN1
r
a&
ISZ
ISZ
n
C6Cn
2
r
24 3n
G.
ciperoensis
G
.e
u
a
p
e
r
t
u
r
a
G.
ciperoensis
P22
P22
P22
A
P
1
6
NP25
CP
IZ
IZ
I
Z
C6Cr

OLIGOCENE TIME SCALE

TIME
(Ma)
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33

C6Bn
C6Br

1
2n

C7r
C7An
C7Ar

C8n
C8r

2n

M1a

n
r

3n

C7n

M1b

1
2

C6Cn
C6Cr 1

r n

P22
n

C9r

C10n

C10r
C11n
C11r
C12n

2n

1
2n

n
r

C15r

C16n 2n
C16r

C17n

NN2

Gl. primordius PRZ

NN1

Gl. ciperoensis
PRZ

NP25

Gl. angulisutur alis

P. opima s. s.
ISZ

Gl. angulisuturalis/Ch. cubensis

CRSZ

CN1 a&b

P20

Gl. sellii PRZ

P19

T. ampliapertura
IZ

NP24

NP23

1n

P17

T. cerroazulensis IZ

P16

Cr. inflata
TRZ

NP19-20

P. semiinvoluta
IZ

NP18

CP18
(2)
CP17
(1)

CP16

b
a

CP15

P15

(2)

(1)
T. cerroazulensis
NP22
P18 Pseudohastigerina spp.
IZ
NP21

C13n

C15n

G. kugler i/G. dehiscens

CRZ

b
n

C12r

35

& Miller, 1988; this work) Martini (1971) Bukry (1973, 1975)

2n

C9n

C13r

37

FORAMINIFERA

(Berggren

34

36

PLANKTON ZONES CALCAREOUSNANNOPLANKTON

CHRONS

EOCENE TIME SCALE

TIME
(Ma)
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

CHRONS
C12n

C12r
C13n

C13r
C15r

47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56

2n

C16r

C17n
C17r

3n

C18n

C19r

46

1 n/r

C16n

42

45

FORAMINIFERA

Mar tini (1971) Bukry (1973, 1975)

This Work

P19

T. ampliapertura IZ

P18

Ch. cubensis
Pseudohastigerina spp.
IZ

P17

C15n

C18r

44

CALCAREOUSNANNOPLANKT ON

Berggren&Miller
(1988)

41
43

PLANKTON ZONES

2n

n
r
r

T. cerroazulensis IZ

P16

Cr. inflata TRZ

NP19-20

P15

P. semiinvoluta IZ

NP18

P14

Tr. rohri M. spinulosa

PRZ

n
r

P13

P12

M. lehneri PRZ

C20n

C21n
C21r
C22n
C22r
C23n
C23r

C24n 2n/r

r n

2n

P10

H. nuttalli IZ
P. palmerae - H. nuttalli
IZ

P8

M. aragonensis PRZ

M. aragonensis/M. formosa
CRZ

P7

3n

C24r
C25n

P11

G. kugleri /
M. aragonensis CRZ

P9
1

PALEOCENE

THANELATE TIAN

P6
P5
P4

CP15

NP17

NP16

c
b

c
b

a
b
a
NP13

a
b
a
CP11

NP12

CP10

Gl. beckmanni TRZ

C19n

C20r

NP21

b
a
c

P6
P5

M. formosa/M.lensiformis
M. aragonensis ISZ

M. velascoensis - M. formosa/M.lensiformis
ISZ

M. velascoensis
IZ

M. soldadoensis/Gl. pseudomenardii CRSZ

NP10

CP9

b
a

NP9

CP8

NP11

PALEOCENE TIME SCALE

TIME
(Ma)
51
52
53
54
55
56

C23n
C23r

63

C28n

64

C28r

68

P4

C27n

C27r

67

P7

C26r

62

66

C25n

C26n

65

58

61

FORAMINIFERA

C24r

C25r

60

C24n

57

59

PLANKTON ZONES

CHRONS

P1

C30n

C29r

P2

C29n

C30r

C31n

NEWARKBASIN
CORES

FORMATIONS
PALYNOFLORAL
MEMBERS
ZONES

GEOLOGIC
AGE

MAGNETICPOLARITY
CYCLE
(Depth)

E24

BOONTON
HOOKMT.

E23

TOWACO

E22

201MaAr/Ar
PREAKNESS *
202MaU/Pb

E21

FELTVILLE
ORANGEMT.

E20

Exeter
PineRidge
TT
SS
RR
QQ
PP
OO
NN
MM
LL
KK
JJ
II
Ukrainian
CedarGrove
FF
EE
DD
CC
BB
AA
Z
Y
Metlars
Livingston
Kilmer

E19
E18
E17
E16
E15

E14

TU
S
R
Q
Neshanic

E13

Perkasie
LM
K

E12

I
Graters

E11

EF
Warford
C

E10

WallsIsland
TumbleFalls
SmithCorner
PrahlsIsland
Tohicken
SkunkHollow
Byram
EwingCreek
Nursery
Princeton
ScuddersFalls
Wilburtha

E9
E8

RaR1
RaR2
RaR3
RaR4
RaR5
RaR6
RaR7
RaR8

P r a lls v ille

S o le b u ry

62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

205

210

215

220

225

E7
E6

C u tta lo s s a

200
Ma

(GPTS)

230

E5
E4
E3
E2
E1