Chapter 04

Lecture Outline
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Chapter 4 Outline

Epithelial Tissue
Connective Tissue
Muscle Tissue
Nervous Tissue
Tissue Change and Aging

Introduction
The body is composed of trillions of cells,
which are organized into more complex
units called tissues
A tissue is a group of similar cells and
extracellular products that perform a
common function

Introduction

Four types of tissue in the body:

1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue

Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue lines every body surface
and all body cavities
Organs are lined on the outside and inside
by epithelial tissue
The majority of glands are derived from
epithelial tissue
Epithelial tissue possesses little to no
extracellular matrix

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

All epithelia share several characteristics:
Junctions: Cells are bound together by
several types of intercellular junctions
Polarity: Epithelial cells have an apical
(top) surface and a basal (bottom) surface
where they attach to underlying cells

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

Attachment: Basal surface is attached

to a thin basement membrane, which is
an acellular structure produced by both
epithelial and underlying connective
tissue cells
Avascularity: All epithelial tissues lack
blood vessels; the cells receive their
nutrients by diffusion from underlying
tissues

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

Innervation: Epithelia are richly

innervated
High regeneration capacity: Because
the apical surface is constantly exposed
to the environment, epithelial cells are
frequently damaged or die; they are
replaced as quickly as they are lost

Polarity and Intercellular Junctions

in an Epithelium
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Apical (free) surface

Lateral surface

Epithelium
Basement membrane

Basal surface
Connective tissue

Blood vessel

(a) Epitheliumconnective tissue junction

Figure 4.1a

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

Physical protection: From dehydration and

abrasion, as well as physical, chemical, and
biological agents
Selective permeability: Regulate the passage of
certain molecules in or out of certain regions of the
body
Secretion: Some epithelial cells called exocrine
cells produce secretions such as sweat or oil
Sensation: Possess nerve endings that can
detect light, taste, sound, smell, and hearing

Basement membrane

Specialized Structures
The basement membrane is found
between the epithelium and underlying
connective tissue
Provides anchoring of epithelial tissue
Acts as a barrier to regulate passage of
large molecules between epithelium and
underlying connective tissue

Cell junctions

Not restricted to epithelial cells, however,

they are found in large number in
epithelial tissue.
1. Tight junction (zonula occludens)
2. Adherent junction = desmosome
3. Gap junction

Polarity and Intercellular Junctions

in an Epithelium
Copyright McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Apical (free) surface

Epithelium
Basement membrane

Lateral surface
Basal surface

Connective tissue

Blood vessel

(a) Epitheliumconnective tissue junction

Tight junction

Membrane protein
Plasma membrane
Microfilament

Hemidesmosome

Adhering junction
Desmosome
Protein filaments
Protein plaque
Intermediate filaments

Intercellular space

Figure 4.1

Adjacent plasma
membranes
(b) Types of intercellular junctions

Intercellular space

Plasma membrane

Gap junction
Pore
Connexon

Tight Junctions

Encircle cells near their apical surface

Prevent molecules from traveling
between epithelial cells, therefore
molecules must go through the epithelial
cells rather than in between them
Gatekeepers between an external and
internal environment

Adhering Junctions
(desmosomes)
Belt desmosome (zonula adherens)
Spot desmosome (macula adherens)
hemidesmososme

Belt Desmosome
keeps tissues from
separating as they
stretch and
contract.

Belt Desmosome

Formed completely around the cell deep

to the tight junction
Microfilaments act like a purse string to
stabilize the apical surface of the
epithelial cell

Spot Desmosome

Spot Desmosomes

Like a button or snap between adjacent cells

Appear at locations of mechanical stress between
cells sharing this type of junction
Consist of a thickened protein plaque on each of the
apposed cell membranes with a fine network of
proteins spanning the intercellular space between the
plaques
On the cytoplasmic side, intermediate filaments
attach to the plaques and provide support and
stability to this structure that is shared between the
two apposed cells

Hemidesmosomes
joins the basal
surface cell to
basal lamina
rather than to
another cell

Membrane Junctions- Gap Junction

Gap Junctions
Fluid-filled channels that directly connect
the cytoplasms of apposed cells sharing
these structures
Allow adjacent cells to communicate with
each other by the flow of ions and other
small molecular messengers

Classification of Epithelial Tissue

Many different types of epithelial tissue

Classified according to two criteria:
1. Number of layers of cells
2. Shape of the cells

Classification by Number of Cell Layers

Simple epithelium: A single layer of cells with all
cells having an apical surface and attached to the
basement membrane
Stratified epithelium: Two or more layers of cells;
not all cells have an apical surface nor do all cells
attach to the basement membrane
Pseudostratified epithelium: Cell nuclei give the
appearance of a multilayered epithelium, but not all
cells reach the apical surface

Classification of Epithelia

Figure 4.2a

Classification by Cell Shape

Squamous: Flat, wide, and somewhat
irregular in shape
Cuboidal: About the same size on all
sides; the nucleus is usually centrally
located
Columnar: Taller than they are wide;
nucleus is oval and located in the basal
region of the cell

Classification of Epithelia

Figure 4.2b

Types of Epithelium

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Single layer of flat cells

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Single layer of cells as tall
as they are wide

Nonciliated Simple Columnar

Epithelium
Single layer of cells
that are taller than
they are wide
No cilia present

Ciliated Simple Columnar

Epithelium
Columnar epithelial cells;
some have cilia on their
apical surface

Nonkeratinized Stratified
Squamous Epithelium
Multiple layers of cells
Apical cells are
squamous

Keratinized Stratified
Squamous Epithelium
Multiple layers of cells
Apical cells are
squamous
Superficial layers of cells
contain keratin

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Multiple layers of cells
Apical cells are cuboidal

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

Multiple layers of cells
Apical cells are columnar

Pseudostratified Columnar
Epithelium
Single layer of columnar
epithelial cells, but
layered appearance of
nuclei suggests multiple
layers of cells

Transitional Epithelium
Apical cell shape
changes depending on
whether the tissue is
stretched or relaxed

Glands

Individual cells or multicellular organs

They produce mucin, hormones, enzymes, and
waste products
Glands fall into two categories:
1. Endocrine glands do not possess ducts and
secrete directly into the interstitial fluid or the
bloodstream
2. Exocrine glands possess ducts and their
cells secrete their products into their ducts

General Structure
of Exocrine Glands

Figure 4.4

Structural Classification of
Multicellular Exocrine Glands

Figure 4.5

Unicellular Exocrine Glands

The only important unicellular gland
is the goblet cell
secrete mucin
Mucin, a complex glycoprotein, which
dissolve in water mucus (for
protection and lubrication)

Microvilli

Secretory
vesicles
containing
mucin
Rough ER
Golgi
apparatus
Nucleus
(a)

(b)
Figure 4.4

Modes of Secretion
Apocrine:
Merocrine
Holocrine

Apocrine
Secretes intact vesicle along with
some cytoplasm.
Secretion process results in some damage
to cells plasma membrane
Ex: mammary glands

Merocrine
Products are secreted by exocytosis (e.g.,
pancreas, sweat and salivary glands)
Most numerous gland type
Ex: digestive enzymes from pancreatic
acinar cells and insulin

Holocrine
the whole cell is released.
Cells may be viable (oocyte or sperm)
Cell may rupture: Sebaceous gland is
the only example (cells are replaced by
rapid division of stem cells.)

Connective Tissue
Most diverse, abundant, widely distributed,
and structurally varied of all four tissue
types
Connective tissue is the glue and filler
of the body
Examples include tendons, ligaments, fat,
bones, cartilage, and blood

Characteristics of
Connective Tissue

Cells: Different cells for different types of connective

tissue

Examples include fibroblasts, osteocytes, and adipocytes

Protein fibers: Elastic fibers, collagen, reticular

fibers
Ground substance: A mixture of proteins and
carbohydrates with variable amounts of salts and
water

Protein fibers and ground substance comprise the

extracellular matrix

Ground substance
Components:
Interstitial fluid (mostly water)
Fibronectin: adhesion proteins (glue)
attaches the ECM to the plasma membrane

Proteoglycans
Protein core + large polysaccharides
(chrondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid)
Trap water in varying amounts, affecting
the viscosity of the ground substance

Connective Tissue Components

and Organization

Figure 4.7

Functions of Connective Tissue

Physical protection
Support and structural framework
Binding of structures
Storage
Transport
Immune protection

Development of
Connective Tissue

Arises from mesoderm

Two types of embryonic CT:
1. Mesenchyme: The source of all adult
connective tissue
2. Mucous: Found in umbilical cord

Embryonic Connective Tissue

Classification of Connective Tissue

Types present after birth can be

classified into three broad categories:
1. Connective tissue proper
2. Supporting connective tissue
3. Fluid connective tissue

Connective Tissue Classification

Figure 4.8

Connective Tissue Proper

There are two groups of cells in

connective tissue proper:
1. Resident cells: Include fibroblasts,
adipocytes, fixed macrophages, and
mesenchymal cells
2. Wandering cells: Include mast cells,
plasma cells, free macrophages, and other
leukocytes

Cells of Connective Tissue Proper

Fibers of Connective Tissue Proper

There are three general types of protein
fibers produced by CT cells and secreted
into the extracellular matrix:
Collagen fibers: long, unbranching, strong,
flexible, and resistant to stretching. They
make up 25% of all protein in the human
body, making collagen the most abundant
protein.

Fibers of Connective Tissue Proper

Elastic fibers: Thinner than collagen,

stretch easily, branch, and rejoin
These fibers allow structures such as blood
vessels to stretch and relax

Reticular fibers: Thinner than collagen

fibers; form a branching, woven
framework
Found in the stroma of organs with abundant
spaces such as liver, lymph nodes, and
spleen

Ground Substance of
Connective Tissue Proper
A combination of proteins and
carbohydrates
Texture is usually gelatinous
Additional content such as water and salts
can result in a texture anywhere from
semi-fluid (adipose) to hard (bone)

Categories of Connective
Tissue Proper

Classified into two categories:

1. Loose connective tissue: Serves as the
bodys packing material, found in spaces
around organs

Types include areolar, adipose, and reticular

2. Dense connective tissue: Strong, has

fibers (mostly collagen) packed tightly
together

Types include dense regular, dense irregular,

and elastic

Connective Tissue Proper

Areolar Connective Tissue

One of the most widely
distributed of all tissues
Several kinds of cells
present:
fibroblasts and
macrophages, mast
cells, plasma cells, fat
cells, and some white
blood cells
Function: stretch, flexible
connection

Adipose Connective Tissue

Produces the hormone
leptin, which signals
the brain how much
fat is stored
Leptin inhibits NPY
synthesis (appetite
stimulator)

Reticular Connective Tissue

Forms framework of
spleen, lymph nodes,
and bone marrow
Functions: defense
against microorganisms
and other injurious
substances
Contains reticular fibers,
fibroblasts, and
leukocytes

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

Collagen fibers
aligned parallel to
applied force

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

Bundles of collagen
fibers extending in
many directions

Elastic Connective Tissue

Elastic fibers provide

ability to stretch and
recoil

Supporting Connective Tissue

Two types of supporting connective tissue:
1. Cartilage
2. Bone

Cartilage
Firm, gel-like extracellular matrix
composed of protein and ground substance
Cells are called chondrocytes
Chondrocytes occupy small spaces
enclosed by their extracellular matrix called
lacunae
Support and withstand deformation

Types of Cartilage
There are three types of cartilage:
1. Hyaline cartilage
2. Fibrocartilage
3. Elastic cartilage

Hyaline Cartilage

Most common type, but

also the weakest
Glassy matrix

Fibrocartilage

Densely interwoven
collagen fibers contribute
to the durability

Elastic Cartilage

Abundant elastic fibers

Bone
Cells are called osteocytes
Extracellular matrix is a mixture of
collagen and calcium salts
This mixture provides flexibility from the
organic components and compressional
strength from the inorganic components

Bone

Calcified matrix
arranged in osteons

Fluid Connective Tissue

Refers to the blood

Composed of the following components:
Plasma: A watery ground substance
containing protein fibers
Erythrocytes: Red blood cells
Leukocytes: White blood cells
Platelets: Fragments of blood cells involved
in blood clotting

Fluid Connective Tissue

Contains erythrocytes,
leukocytes, and
platelets
Plasma contains
soluble proteins

Epithelial Membranes
Majority of the organs are composed of all
4 tissues.
Epithelial membranes are the simplest
organs, which is composed of mainly
Epithelial tissue and connective tissue.
1. Cutaneous membrane (skin)

Cutaneous
membrane
(skin)

(a) Cutaneous membrane (the skin)

covers the body surface.

Epithelial Membranes
2. Mucous membranes (Mucosae)
Line body cavities open to the exterior (e.g.,
digestive and respiratory tracts)
Epithelial tissue can be:
stratified squamous epithelia
simple columnar epithelia.

The epithelial sheet is directly underlain by a

layer of loose CT called the lamina propria

Mucosa of
nasal cavity
Mucosa of
mouth
Esophagus
lining

Mucosa of
lung bronchi

(b) Mucous membranes line body cavities

open to the exterior.
Figure 4.11b

Mucus membrane

Epithelial Membranes
3. Serous Membranes (Serosae):
Membranes in a closed ventral body cavity
Parietal serosae line internal body walls
Visceral serosae cover internal organs

Epithelial and connective tissues are:

simple squamous epithelium (a
mesothelium)
mesothelium
a thin layer of areolar tissue

It is named according to their sites

(pleura, pericardium, peritoneum)

Parietal

Parietal

peritoneum

pleura
Visceral

Visceral

pleura

peritoneum
Parietal

Visceral

pericardium

pericardium

(c) Serous membranes line body cavities

closed to the exterior.
Figure 4.11c

Muscle Tissue
Comprised of cells called fibers
When stimulated by the nervous system,
fibers shorten
The result of shortening is movement
Examples: Movement of bones, blood, food,
and sperm

Classification of Muscle Tissue

Three histological types of muscle in the body:
1. Skeletal muscle tissue
2. Cardiac muscle tissue
3. Smooth muscle tissue

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Cells (muscle fibers) are:
Cylindrical and long (some as long as whole
muscle)
Multinucleated
Striated (striped internal appearance) and
voluntary

Attached to bones of skeleton and

sometimes skin

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Long, cylindrical
fibers
Striated, parallel,
and unbranched

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Found only in the wall of the heart (myocardium)
Cells are:
Branched, Y-shaped, and shorter than skeletal fiber
cells
Striated
Involuntary
Attached end-to-end by strong gap junctions at
intercalated discs that allow rapid passage of
electrical current from one cell to the next during each
heartbeat

Contraction causes movement of blood

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Cells are short,

striated, and
branching
Intercalated discs at
cell junctions

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Found in walls of most internal organs
Examples: Stomach, intestines, urinary
bladder

Cells are:
Relatively short, wide in the middle, and
tapered at the ends (fusiform)
Involuntary with no striations

Contraction causes movement of food,

blood, sperm

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Cells are fusiform,

short, and
nonstriated

Nervous Tissue

Contains two types of cells:

Neurons: Nerve cells that are capable
of initiating and conducting electrical
activity throughout the body
Glial cells: Cells that support and
protect neurons
Function is communication and control of
body functions
Found in brain, spinal cord, and nerves

Nervous Tissue

Neurons containing cell

processes called axons
and dendrites
Glial cells lack these
processes

Tissue Change and Aging

Tissues can undergo change in form, size, or
number during the aging process:
Metaplasia: Epithelia lining the respiratory airways of
people who smoke change from pseudostratified ciliated to
stratified squamous
Hypertrophy: An increase in the size of existing cells
Hyperplasia: An increase in number of cells in a tissue
Neoplasia: Out-of-control growth, which forms a tumor
Atrophy: Shrinkage of tissue by cell size or number