Digital modulation techniques

What is modulation??
A process of modifying a carrier wave (radio wave)
systematically by the modulating signal (audio).
This process make the signal suitable for transmission and
compatible with channel.
The resultant signal is called the modulated signal.
In other words, it is the process of varying/modifyimg of
carrier wave by modulating signal/original signal.

Modulation
Modulation = Adding information to a carrier signal
The sine wave on which the characteristics of the
information signal are modulated is called a carrier signal

Type of modulation
A) Analog Modulation - where the parameter of the carrier is changed
propotionally with the modulating signal.
i) Amplitude Modulation (AM)
ii) Frequency Modulation (FM)
iii) Phase Modulation (PM)
B) Digital Modulation - Relatively high frequency analogue carriers are
modulated by relatively low frequency digital information signals and
system involving the transmission in digital pulses.
i) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Modulations systems

Channel capacity

Reasons for choosing encoding

techniques

Analog modulation

Digital modulation and

demodulation

Types of digital-to-analog modulation

Signal characteristics that can be

modified
signal x(t) = A cos(2ft + )
A amplitude
f frequency
phase (initial angle of the sinusoidal function at its
origin

Modulation

Modulation (1)

Bit
Refers to the unit of information.
Bit rate is the frequency of a system bit stream.
Symbol Refers to the unit of transmission energy.
--Representation of bits that the medium transmits to
convey information.
-- A symbol can contain one or more bits
Bits are transmitted in the form of Symbols.
Symbol rate = bit rate
the number of bits transmitted with each symbol
Baud Rate of change of symbols is known as Baud Rate.

 Baud refers to the rate of change of a signal on the

transmission medium after encoding and modulation
have occurred.
Hence, baud is a unit of transmission rate, modulation
rate, or symbol rate and, therefore, the terms symbols
per second and baud are often used interchangeably.
Mathematically, baud is the reciprocal of the time of one
output signaling element, and a signaling element may
represent several information bits. Baud is expressed as

where baud = symbol rate (baud per second)

ts = time of one signaling element (seconds)

 The minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary to

propagate a signal is called the minimum Nyquist
bandwidth or sometimes the minimum Nyquist
frequency.
Thus, fb = 2B, where fb is the bit rate in bps and B is
the ideal Nyquist bandwidth.
The relationship between bandwidth and bit rate also
applies to the opposite situation. For a given
bandwidth (B), the highest theoretical bit rate is 2B.
For example, a standard telephone circuit has a
bandwidth of approximately 2700 Hz, which has the
capacity to propagate 5400 bps through it.

 However, if more than two levels are used for signaling

(higher-than-binary encoding), more than one bit may be
transmitted at a time, and it is possible to propagate abit
rate that exceeds 2B.
Using multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation for
channel capacity is
fb = B log2 M
where

fb = channel capacity (bps)

B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels

The above equation can be rearranged to solve for the minimum

bandwidth necessary to pass M-ary digitally modulated carriers

 If N is substituted for log2 M, the equation reduces

to

where N is the number of bits encoded into each

signaling element.
In addition, since baud is the encoded rate of
change, it also equals the bit rate divided by the
number of bits encoded into one signaling
element. Thus,

M-ary Coding

M-ary is a term derived from the word binary.

M simply represents a digit that corresponds to the number of
conditions, levels, or combinations possible for a given
number of binary variables.
For example, a digital signal with four possible conditions
(voltage levels, frequencies, phases, and so on) is an M-ary
system where M = 4. If there are eight possible conditions,
M = 8 and so forth.
The number of bits necessary to produce a given number of conditions
is expressed mathematically as

N = log 2M
where N = number of bits necessary
M = number of conditions, levels, or combinations

 The above equation can be simplified and

rearranged to express the number of conditions
possible with N bits as
2N=M
For example, with one bit, only 21 = 2 conditions
are possible. With two bits, 22 = three bits, 23 = 8
conditions are possible, and so on.4 conditions are
possible, with

Digital modulation techniques

ASK
ASK On-off keying (Amplitude Shift Keying)
frequency is kept constant, amplitude has 2 levels (for bit
1 and for bit 0)

The binary sequence 0010110010

 Mathematically, amplitude-shift keying is

FSK (Frequency shift keyring)

FSK
() avoiding most of the problems from
noise
() the limiting factors are the physical
capabilities of the carrier

FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth

The baud for binary FSK can also be determined by
substituting N = 1 in
When the binary input
(fb) changes from a logic
baud = fb / 1 = fb
The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given as
B = |(fs fb) (fm fb)|
= |(fs fm)| + 2fb

1 to a logic 0 and vice

versa, the FSK output
frequency shifts from a
mark ( fm) to a space (fs)
frequency and vice
versa.

and since |(fs fm)| equals 2f, the minimum bandwidth

can be approximated as
B = 2( f + fb)
where
B= minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
f= frequency deviation |(fm fs)| (hertz)
fb = input bit rate (bps)

it can be seen that the time of one bit (tb) is the same as the
time the FSK output is a mark of space frequency(ts).
Thus, the bit time equals the time of an FSK signaling
element, and the bit rate equals the baud.

 Since it takes a high and a low to produce a cycle,

the highest fundamental frequency present in a
square wave equals the repetition rate of the
square wave, which with a binary signal is equal
to half the bit rate. Therefore,
fa = fb / 2
where
fa = highest fundamental frequency of the binary
input signal (hertz)
fb = input bit rate (bps)

PSK (Phase shift keyring)

PSK
Constellation
() not susceptible to the noise degradation that affects
ASK
() not susceptible to the bandwidth limitation that affects
FSK

The Balanced Modulator

The balanced modulator acts as a phase
reversing switch. Depending on the logic
condition of the digital input, the carrier
is transferred to the output either in
phase or 180 degree out of phase with the
reference carrier oscillator.

Balanced Ring Modulator

T1

T2
Mo

Binary
data in

Operation of ring modulator

The balanced modulator has two inputs: a carrier that is in phase with the reference
oscillator and the binary digital data.
For the balanced modulator operate properly, the digital input voltage must be much
greater than the peak carrier voltage. This ensures that the digital input controls the
on/off state of diodes D0-D1.
If the binary input is logic 1 (positif voltage), D0 are forward biased and on, while D1
are reverse biased and off.
With the polarities shown, the carrier voltage is developed across transformer T2 in
phase with the carrier voltage across T1.
Consequently, the output signal is in phase with the reference oscillator.
If the binary input is a logic 0 (negative voltage), diode D1 are forward biased and on.
As a result, the carrier voltage is developed across transformer T2 180 degrees out of
phase with the carrier voltage across T1.
Consequently, the output signal 180 degree out of phase with the reference oscillator.

Example 1

In BPSK fa = fb/2 = 10 MHz/2 = 5 HMz

LSF = fc - fa

USF = fc + fa

4-PSK
Also known as Q-PSK.
Dibit: the pair of bits represented by each phase.
Twice transmission rate, compared to 2-PSK.

Extension of Binary-PSK
Spectrum Efficient Technique
In M-ary Transmission it is Possible to Transmit M Possible Signal
M = 2n
where,
n= no of bits that we combine
signaling Interval T= nTb

In QPSK n=2 === > So M =4

and
signaling Interval T= 2Tb

 M=4 so we have possible signal are 00,01,10,11

Or In Natural Coded Form 00,10,11,01

 M=4 so we have possible signal are 00,01,10,11

Or In Natural Coded Form 00,10,11,01
s (t ) Ac cos(2 fct

3
)
4

-135

Binary Dibit 00

Ac cos(2 fct )
4

-45

Binary Dibit 10

Ac cos(2 fct )
4

45

Binary Dibit 11

135

Binary Dibit 01

Ac cos(2 fct

3
)
4

QPSK Transmitter

Example 2
For a QPSK modulator with an input data rate (fb)
equal to 10Mbps and a carrier frequency of 70
MHz, determine the minimum double sided
Nyquist bandwidth and the baud. Also compare
the result those achived with the BPSK modulator
in example 1. Use the QPSK Transmitter as a
modulator model.

Solution

The bit rate in both I and Q channel is equal to one-half of transmission bit rate
*** fbQ = fbI = fb/2 = 10 Mbps/2 = 5 Mbps
The highest fundamental frequency presented to either balanced modulator is
*** fa = fbQ/2 or fbI/2 = 5 Mbps/2 = 2.5 MHz
USF = 70 MHz + 2.5 MHz = 72.5 MHz
LSF = 70 MHz 2.5 MHz = 67.5 MHz
So minimum Nyquist Bandwidth = 5 MHz
output spectrum
B = 5 MHz

67.5 MHz
70 MHz
72.5 MHz
(LSF=fc-fa)
fc
(USF=fc+fa)
It can be seen that for the same input bit rate the minimum bandwidth required
to pass the output of the QPSK modulator is equal to one-half that required for
the BPSK modulator.
The symbol rate equals to bandwidth, thus symbol rate = 5 Megabaud

Example 3

For the QPSK modulator above, construct

the truth table, phasor diagram and
constellation diagram.

Solution
Essentially, a QPSK modulator is two BPSK
modulators combined in parallel.
The output of BM1 depending on the incoming i/p:
Either + sin ct or sin ct
The output of BM2 depending on the incoming i/p:
Either + cos ct or cos ct
The linear summer combines the two o/p of the
BM:
There are four possible outputs :

QPSK Modulator Truth

Table

QPSK Modulator
Phasor Diagram

QPSK Modulator
Constellation Diagram