III.

SphericalWavesand
Radiation
Antennasradiatesphericalwavesintofreespace
Receivingantennas,reciprocity,pathgainandpathloss
Noiseasalimittoreception
Raymodelforantennasaboveaplaneearthandina
streetcanyon
Cylindricalwaves
PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

RadioChannelEncompassesCables,
AntennasandEnvironmentBetween
RadioChannel
Transmitting Receiving
Antenna
Antenna

Tx
Information

Rx
Cable

Transmitterimpressesinformation
ontothevoltageofahighpower
RFcarrierfortransmission
throughtheaircalledmodulation

PolytechnicU

Cable

Information

Receiverextractstheinformation
fromthevoltageofalowpower
receivedsignalcalled
demodulation

2002byH.L.Bert

ExamplesofDifferentCellularAntennas
Halfwavedipole
/2

Fullwavemonopole
abovegroundplane
/2

Dipoleincorner
reflector

/4
/4

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

PCSAntennas

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

BaseStationAntennas

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

AntennasRadiateElectromagneticWaves
Transmitting
Antenna

EMwaveshave:
ElectricfieldE(V/m)
MagneticfieldH(A/m)
Cable
EandH
Perpendiculartoeachotherandtodirection
ofpropagationPolarization
Amplitudedependsondirectionof
propagationRadiationPattern
PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

E
H

SphericalWavesRadiatedbyAntennas
z

Forlarger,localizedcurrentsources
radiatefieldsintheformofSpherical
Waves

ar
H

I terminalCurrent
Z constantwithunitsofohms
120

ejkr
E =aE ZI
f (,)
r
1
H = ar E

ar =aE =1

RadialPowerFlux
2
ZI
1
1
2

2
P = Re{ E H } =ar
f
(
,
)
(watts/m
)
2
2 r 2
Antennapattern= f ,

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

PowerRadiationPattern
P()

Powerdensityradiatedbyantenna
P()=ExH*watts/m2
Poyntingvectorintheradialdirection
PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

OmnidirectionalAntennas

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

ParabolicReflectorAntenna

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

10

HornAntennas

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

11

LogPeriodicDipoleArray

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

12

DualPolarizationPatchAntenna

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

13

TotalRadiatedPower
PT =

P a dA,
r

wheredA=r2 sin dd

sphere

2
1
2
2
PT = ZI f (,) sindd
2
0 0

dA

ar

r
PTisindependentofr,asrequiredby
conservationofpower.
f ,
Normalizationforis:
2

f (,)

42 area of sphere

sindd =4

0 0

Then: PT =

4
2
ZI and P =arPT
2

PolytechnicU

f (,)
4r

2002byH.L.Bert

14

AntennaGainandRadiationResistancefor
NoResistiveLoss
Directivegain =g()=|f()|2 and
Antennagain =G =Max.valueof g(
Ifisotropicantennascouldexist,then |f()|2=1,G=1
RadiationResistanceRr=effectiveresistanceseenatantennaterminals

1 2
4
I Rr = PT =
ZI
2
2
4 2
Rr =
Z

Z =

Rr
4

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

15

AntennaDirectivity,Gain,Efficiency
Maximum Pointing Vector
Pm(r)
Directivity=
=
Average Pointing VectorPav(r)
Pm(r)
=
PT (4r2 )

Pm(r)
Gain=
includes the effect of antenna resistan
2
Pterminal (4r )
Efficiency=

PT
Pterminal

PolytechnicU

Gain
=
Directivity

2002byH.L.Bert

16

Short(Hertzian)DipoleAntenna
The radiated field can be
z
L<<

written in the desired form

I(z)

ejkr
E =aE ZI
sin
r
if

Starting with Maxwell'

s equations,
it is found that
LI ejkr
E =a j
sin
2 r

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

f () =

3
sin
2

Z =j

2 L
3 2
2

G = f (90) =3/2
2

Rr =

2 L
3

17

HalfWaveDipoleAntenna
Theradiatedfieldcanbewritten:
z

/4
H

I(z)

ejkr
E =aE ZI
f ()
r
where

cos cos
2

f () =
0.781sin
0.781
Z =j

2
2

G = f (90) =1.64
/4

PolytechnicU

10logG =2.2dB
2

4 0.781
Rr =
j
=73

2002byH.L.Bert

18

SummaryofAntennaRadiation
Radiationinfreespacetakestheformofspherical
waves
E,Handrformarighthandsystem
Fieldamplitudesvaryas1/rtoconservepower
Powervariesas1/r2,andvarieswithdirection
fromtheantenna
Directiondependencegivesthedirectivityand
gainoftheantenna
Radiationresistanceistheterminalrepresentation
oftheradiatedpower
PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

19

ReceivingAntennasandReciprocity
+
V1

I2

I1

Foralineartwoport
V1=Z11I1+Z12I2

Reciprocity
Z12=Z21

V2=Z21I1+Z22I2

EquivalentCircuit

IfI2=0,V2=Z12I1~1/r

Forrlarge,
|Z12|<<|Z11|,|Z22|

PolytechnicU

+
V2

I1

Z11Z12

V1

2002byH.L.Bert

Z22Z12
Z12

I2

V2

20

CircuitRelationforRadiationintoFreeSpace
Z11Z12

+
V1

I1

Z22Z12

+
V2 (opencircuit)

Z12

V1=Z11I1

V2=VOC=Z12I1

Transmitted power
2

PT =1/2
( )Re( V1I 1* ) =(1/2)Re( Z11 I1 ) =(1/2)Rr1 I 1

where
Rr1 =radiation resistance of antenna 1
Therefore
: Z11 =Rr1 +jX1
Similarily
: Z22 =Rr2 +jX2
where
Rr2 =radiation resistance of antenna 2

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

21

ReceivedPowerandPathLossRatio
I1

+
V1

Z11Z12

Z22Z12

Z12 V

CurrentI 1 divides between branches

: I 2 = -I 1

I2
+
V2 Z22* MatchedLoad
Rr2jX2

Z12

Z12+( Z22Z 12+Z22

)

1
1 I 1Z12
Received Power for Matched Load
PR = I 2 Rr 2 =
2
2 2Rr 2
2

Path Gain

= -I 1

= I1

Z12
2Rr 2
2

Z12
8Rr 2

PR
I 1 Z12 8Rr 2
Z 12
PG
=
=
2
PT
4Rr1Rr 2
I 1 Rr1 2

Final expression for

PG is the same if antenna 2 radiates and antenna 1 receives.

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

22

EffectiveAreaofReceivingAntenna
PR =P ar Ae =PT

EffectiveArea=Ae
Ae1

PT

Z*11

PG =

Z*22
PT

PR g2Ae1
=
2
PT 4r

Ae2

and by reciprocityPG =

Thereforeg2Ae1 =g1Ae2 or

PolytechnicU

g(,)
2 Ae
4 r

PR g1Ae2
=
2
PT
4r

Ae1 Ae2
=
= same for all antennas
g1
g2

2002byH.L.Bert

23

EffectiveAreaforaHertzianDipole
z
I

I(z)

L<<

ejkr
E =a ZI
f ()
r
g() =(3 2)(sin)

2 L
Rr =
3

VOC = LE sin

Formatchedtermination
+

Voc

Z11
Z11*

PolytechnicU

or

Voc

RR

RR Voc/2

PR =

V
1 Voc 2
= oc
2 RR
8RR

2002byH.L.Bert

24

EffectiveAreaforaHertzianDipolecont.
For matched termination
:
VOC 2

E 3 2 2
2
PR =
=
=
sin
=(P ar )g()
2

8RR
2 L 2 2
4
4
8

3
In terms of the effective Parea
R =P ar Ae.
LE sin

2
Comparing expressions,
Ae =g()
4

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

25

PathGainandPathLossinFreeSpace
For any antenna
2
2
Ae1 Ae2
A

=
=
=
or Ae = g
g1
g2 g Hertz 4
4

Path gain in free space

2

P
gA
gA

PG R = 1 e22 = 2 e21 =g1g2
4r
PT 4r
4r
For isotropic antennas
g1 =g2 =1
2

PG =
4r

P
1 4r 1
Path Loss
T=
=
PR PG g1g2

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

26

PathGainindBforAntennasinFreeSpace
2
PGdB =PLdB =10logg
1g2

4r
For isotropic antennas,
g1 =g2 =1
For frequency in GHz,
=c f =0.3 fGH
PGdB =32.420logfGH 20logr
PGdB
32.4
52.4
72.4
92.4

r=1

PolytechnicU

fGH=1
Slope=20
r=10

r=100

2002byH.L.Bert

r=1000

27

SummaryofAntennasasReceivers
Directivepropertiesofantennasisthesamefor
receptionandtransmission
EffectiveareaforreceptionAe=g2/4
Formatchedterminations,samepowerisreceived
nomatterwhichantennaisthetransmitter
PathgainPG=PR/PT<1
PathlossPL=1/PG>1

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

28

NoiseLimitonReceivedPower
Minimumpowerforreceptionsetbynoiseand
interference
NoisepowersetbytemperatureT,Boltzmans
constantkandbandwidthfofreceiver:N=kTf
Foranalogsystem,receivedpowerPRmustbeat
least10N
Fordigitalsystems,themaximumcapacityC(bits/s)
inpresenceofwhitenoiseisgivenbythelimit

PR
C =f log2 1+
N
PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

29

SourcesofThermalNoise
SkyTemp~5o150oK
PhysicalTemp
ofLine=TL
TA
Tempof
ReceiverTR

PhysicalTempof
AntennaTAP
GroundTemp~300oK

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

30

ThermalNoisePowerN
N =kTsf

Boltsmansconstant=k=1.38x1023watts/(HzoK)
Systemtemperature=TSoK
Bandwidth=fHz
ForTS=300oKandf=30x103Hz
N=1.24x1016watts
(N)dB=159.1dBw=129.1dBm

NoisefigureofreceiveramplifierF~5dB
Effectivenoise=N+F
Fortheexample,N+F=124.1dBm

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

31

WalkAboutPhones
Frequencyband

450MHz

Bandwidth

12.5kHz

Thermalnoise4x1018mW/Hz

5x1014mW

=0.667m
133dBm

Receivernoisefigure

5dBtypical

SNRforreception

10dBforFM

Minimumreceivedpower

2x1012mW

118dBm

Transmittedpower

500mW

27dBm

Maximumallowedpathloss

(PTr)dB(PRec)dB

145dB

Minimumpathgain

PRec/PTr=1014.5

3.2x1015

Antennagain/Antennaheight

Assume0dB

1.6m

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

32

MaximumRangeWalkAboutsinFree
Space

PG =G1G2
=
>3.21015 =321016
4R 4R
or

R<
4

1
5
=9.4

10
m = 940 km or 563 miles
8
3210

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

33

SummaryofNoise
Noiseandinterferencesetthelimitonthe
minimumreceivedpowerforsignaldetection
Thermalnoisecanbegeneratedinallpartsofthe
communicationssystem
Miracleofradioisthatsignals~1012mWcanbe
detected

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

34

GroundandBuildingsInfluenceRadio
Propagation
Reflectionandtransmissionatground,walls
Diffractionatbuildingcornersandedges

DiffractionPath
Transmission
Reflection

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

35

TwoRayModelforAntennasOverFlatEarth
(AntennasareAssumedtobeIsotropic)
E1

Antenna

r1

E2

h1

r2

h2

Image
2

1
1
Pr =Pt
expjkr
(
)
+
(

)
expjkr
(
1
2)
4 r1
r2
() =

cos a r sin2
cos +a r sin2

where =90 anda =1r for vertical (TM) polarization,

or
a=1 horizontal (TE) polarization

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

36

ReflectionCoefficientsatPlaneEarth
Vertical(TM)andHorizontal(TE)Polarizations
1
0.9

Horiz.Pol. r=15-j0.1

0.8

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4

Vert.Pol. r=15-j0.1

0.3
0.2
0.1
0

PolytechnicU

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

IncidentAngle , degree

2002byH.L.Bert

80

90

37

PathGainvs.AntennaSeparation
(h1=8.7mandh2=1.8m)

-40

Brewstersangle

PathGain(dB)

-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
-110 0
10

Vertical pol.
Horizontal pol

10

f=900MHz

10

10

Distance(m)

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

38

ShermanIsland/Rural

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

39

ShermanIslandMeasurementsvs.Theory

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

40

FlatEarthPathLossDependenceforLargeR
If R >>h1 andh2 then
2
1
2
1
hh
r1,2 = R2 +(h1 mh2) R + (h1 mh2 ) =R+ (h12 +h22 ) m 1 2
2R
2R
R
and () -1
2

Received power
Pr =Pt

1
1
expjkr
(
)
+
(

)
expjkr
(
1
2)
4 r1
r2
2

h1h2
h1h2

is approximately
Pr =Pt
exp jk
exp jk
4R

R
R
2

or

h1h2
h1h2
Pr =Pt
2sink
=Pt
2sin2

4R

R
4R
R

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

41

PathGainofTwoRayModel
2

hh
PG =
2sin2 1 2
4R

R
4h1h2
At the break point,
R=
the path gain has a local maximum

2

PG =4
4R
Past the break point
2

2h1h2
h12h22
PG
2
= 4
4R R
R
Past the break point,
PG is:
Independent of frequency
Varies as
1 R4 instead of
1 R2 .

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

42

MaximumRangeforWalkAbouts
onFlatEarth
2

For h1 =h2 =1.6 m,

4h1h2 4(1.6)
RB =
=
=15.3 m

0.667

For R >RB
(h1h2 )2
PG = 4 >3.21015
R
Solving the inequalityR for
2
(1.6
1.6)
15
R4 <
=0.8
10
15
3.210

or
R <5.3103 m = 5.3 km or 3.2 miles

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

43

FresnelZoneGivesRegionofPropagation
r1

r2r1=/2

r2

Fresnelzoneisellipsoidaboutrayconnectingsourceandreceiver
andsuchthatr2r1=/2
RayfieldspropagateswithinFresnelzone
ObjectsplacedoutsideFresnelzonegeneratenewrays,but
haveonlysmalleffectondirectrayfields
ObjectsplacedinsideFresnelzonechangefieldofdirectray
PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

44

FresnelZoneInterpretationofBreakPoint
r1

Fresnelzone
(r2- r1=

r2
RB

Fresnel zone definition

: 2 =r2 r1

Horizontal antenna separation

RB for Fresnel zone to touch the groun
2h h
2=r2 r1 = RB2 +(h1 +h2 )2 RB2 +(h1 h2 )2 1 2
RB
or

RB

4h1h2

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

45

RegressionFitstothe2RayModelonEither
SideoftheBreakPoint
-50

PathGain(dB)

-60

n1=1.3

-70
-80
-90
-100
-110
-120

n2=3.6
f=1850MHz
h1=8.7
h2=1.6
Model:2ray,
r=15

100

PolytechnicU

101

102

Distance(m) RB

2002byH.L.Bert

103

46

SixRayModeltoAccountforReflections
FromBuildingsAlongtheStreet
R0
zT

Ray lengths
:
As seen from above

Rb
Ra

zR

R0 = x2 +(zT zR)

Ra = x +(w +zT +zR)

Topviewofstreetcanyonshowingrelevantrays
Eachrayseenfromaboverepresentstworays
whenviewedfromtheside:
1.RaypropagatingdirectlyfromTxtoRx
2.Rayreflectedfromground

PolytechnicU

Rb = x2 +(w zT zR )
In 3D
2

rn1, 2 = Rn2 +(h1 mh2 )

2002byH.L.Bert

47

SixRayModeloftheStreetCanyon

For x>>h1,h2 polarization coupling at walls can be neglected.

Rn

Angle of incidence on ground

n =arctan
h1 +h2
For each ray pair (vertical polarization)
ejkrn1
ejkrn2
Vn =
+ H (n )
rn1
rn2

Wall reflection angle

a,b =arctan
w( zT +zR )
Path Gain of six rays
2

2
PG =
V0 +E ( a )Va + E (b )Vb
4

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

48

SixRayModelforStreetCanyon

f=900MHz,h1=10m,h2=1.8m,w=30m,zT=zR=8m

ReceivedPower(dBW)

-40
-50
-60

6raymodel

-70
-80
-90
-100
-110

2raymodel

-120
-130
-140

101

PolytechnicU

102

Distance(m)

103

2002byH.L.Bert

104

49

ReceivedSignalonLOSRoute
f=1937MHz,hBS=3.2m,hm=1.6m

Telesis Technology Laboratories, Experimental License Progress Report to the FCC, August, 1991.

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

50

SummaryofRayModelsfor
LineofSight(LOS)Conditions
Raymodelsdescribesgroundreflectionfor
antennasabovetheearth
Presenceofearthchangestherangedependence
from1/R2to1/R4
Propagationinastreetcanyoncausesfluctuations
ontopofthetworaymodel
Fresnelzoneidentifiestheregioninspacethrough
whichfieldspropagate
PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

51

CylindricalWavesDuetoLineSource
The concept of a cylindrical wave will
be useful for discussing diffraction

Line
Source

Phase is constant over the surface

y

of a cylinder
For >> radiated fields are

ejk
E =aE ZI
f ()

1
H = a E

Field amplitudes vary

1/ as

to conserve power.

PolytechnicU

2002byH.L.Bert

52