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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15

is defined as the spontaneous


disintegration of certain
atomic nuclei accompanied by
the emission of alpha
particles, beta particles or
gamma radiation.

CHAPTER 15: Radioactivity


(3 Hours)

1
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Learning Outcome:
15.1 Radioactive decay (2 hours)
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physic s

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:


 Explain α, β+, βˉ and γ decays.
 State decay law and use
dN
= −λN
dt
 Define activity, A and decay constant, λ .
 Derive and use

N = N 0 e −λt OR A = A0 e −λt
 Define half-life and use
ln 2
T1/ 2 =
λ 2
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15

15.1 Radioactive decay


 Definition (refer to section 14.1.3).
 The radioactive decay is a spontaneous reaction that
is unplanned,
unplanned cannot be predicted and
independent of physical conditions (such as
pressure, temperature) and chemical changes.
changes
 This reaction is random reaction because the
probability of a nucleus decaying at a given instant
is the same for all the nuclei in the sample.
 Radioactive radiations are emitted when an unstable
nucleus decays. The radiations are alpha particles,
beta particles and gamma-rays.
gamma-rays

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
15.1.1 Alpha particle (α )
 An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons.
neutrons
 It is identical to a helium nucleus and its symbol is
4 4
2 He OR 2 α
 It is positively charged particle and its value is +2e with mass
of 4.002603 u.
 When a nucleus undergoes alpha decay it loses four nucleons,
two of which are protons, thus the reaction can be represented
by general equation below:
A
ZX → A− 4
Z −2 Y +
4
2 He + Q
(Parent) (Daughter) (α
 Examples of α decay : particle)
218 214 4
84 Po → 82 Pb + 2 He + Q
226
88 Ra → 222
86 Rn + 4
2 He + Q
230 226 4
90 Th → 88 Ra + 2 He + Q
238
92 U → 234
90 Th + 4
2 He + Q 4
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
15.1.2 Beta particle (β )
 Beta particles are electrons or positrons (sometimes is called
beta-minus and beta-plus particles).
 The symbols represent the beta-minus and beta-plus (positron)
are shown below:
Beta-minus 0 − Beta-plus 0 +
(electron) : −1 e OR β (positron) : 1 e OR β
 Beta-minus particle is negatively charged of −1e and its mass
equals to the mass of an electron.
electron
 Beta-plus (positron) is positively charged of +1e (antiparticle
of electron) and it has the same mass as the electron.
electron
 In beta-minus decay, an electron is emitted, thus the mass
number does not charge but the charge of the parent
nucleus increases by one as shown below:
A
ZX → A
Z +1Y +
0
−1 e + Q
(Parent) (Daughter) (β 5
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
 Examples of β minus decay:
234 234 0
90Th → 91 Pa + −1 e + Q
234 234 0
91 Pa → 92 U + −1 e + Q
214 214 0
83 Bi→ 84 Po + −1 e + Q
 In beta-plus decay, a positron is emitted, this time the charge of
the parent nucleus decreases by one as shown below:
A
ZX → A
Z −1Y +
0
1e + Q
(Parent) (Daughter) (Positron)
 For example of β plus decay is
1 1 0
1 p → 0 n + 1e + v+Q
Neutrino is uncharged
particle with negligible
mass.
mass
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
15.1.3 Gamma ray (γ )
 Gamma rays are high energy photons (electromagnetic
radiation).
radiation
 Emission of gamma ray does not change the parent nucleus
into a different nuclide,
nuclide since neither the charge nor the
nucleon number is changed.
 A gamma ray photon is emitted when a nucleus in an excited
state makes a transition to a ground state.
state
 Examples of γ decay are :
218 ∗ 214 4
84 Po → 82 Pb + 2 He + γ
234 ∗ 234 0 Gamma ray
91 Pa → 92 U + −1 e + γ
208 ∗ 208
81Ti → 81Ti + γ
 It is uncharged (neutral) ray and zero mass.
mass
 The differ between gamma-rays and x-rays of the same
wavelength only in the manner in which they are produced;
produced
gamma-rays are a result of nuclear processes,
processes whereas x-
rays originate outside the nucleus.
nucleus 7
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
15.1.4 Comparison of the properties between alpha
particle, beta particle and gamma ray.
 Table 15.1 shows the comparison between the radioactive
radiations.
Alpha Beta Gamma
Charge
+2e −1e OR +1e 0 (uncharged)
Deflection by
electric and Yes Yes No
magnetic fields
Ionization power
Strong Moderate Weak
Penetration power
Weak Moderate Strong
Ability to affect a
photographic plate Yes Yes Yes
Ability to produce
fluorescence Yes Yes Yes
Table 15.1 8
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
 Figures 15.1 and 15.2 show a deflection of α , β and γ in
electric and magnetic fields.

− B
+
− +
− +
− γ β + γ
− α + β
− +
−  + α
− E +

Radioactive
Figure 15.1 source Figure 15.2

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
15.1.5 Decay constant (λ )
 Law of radioactive decay states:
 dN 
For a radioactive source, the decay rate  −  is directly
 dt 
proportional to the number of radioactive nuclei N
remaining in the source.
source
i.e.  dN  Negative sign means the number of
− ∝ N
 dt  remaining nuclei decreases with time

dN
= −λN (15.1)
dt Decay constant
 Rearranging the eq. (15.1):
dN
decay rate
λ = − dt λ=
N number of remaining radioactive nuclei
Hence the decay constant is defined as the probability that a
radioactive nucleus will decay in one second.
second Its unit is 10
s−1.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
 The decay constant is a characteristic of the radioactive nuclei.
 Rearrange the eq. (15.1), we get
dN
= −λdt (15.2)
N
At time t=0, N=N0 (initial number of radioactive nuclei in the
sample) and after a time t, the number of remaining nuclei is
N. Integration of the eq. (15.2) from t=0 to time t :
N dN t
∫ N0 N ∫
= −λ dt
0

[ ln N ] NN 0 = −λ[t ]t0
N
ln = −λt
N0
N = N 0e − λt (15.3) Exponential law of
radioactive decay
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
 From the eq. (15.3), thus the graph of N, the number of
remaining radioactive nuclei in a sample, against the time t is
shown in Figure 15.3.
N Stimulation 15.1
N0
Note:
−λt From the graph (decay curve),
N = N 0e the life of any radioactive
nuclide is infinity,
infinity therefore to
N0 talk about the life of radioactive
2 nuclide, we refer to its half-life.
half-life
N0
N0 4 T1/ 2 : half − life
8 N0
16 time , t
0 T1/ 2 2T1/ 2 3T1/ 2 4T1/ 2 5T1/ 2
12
Figure 15.3
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
15.1.6 Half-life (T1/2 )
 is defined as the time taken for a sample of radioactive
nuclides disintegrate to half of the initial number of nuclei. nuclei
− λt
 From the eq. (15.3), N =andN 0 ethe definition of half-life,
N0
t = T1/ 2 ; N, thus
when =
2
N0 1
= N 0 e −λT1 / 2 = e −λT1 / 2
2 2
2 = e λT1 / 2
λT1 / 2
ln 2 = ln e
ln 2 0.693
Half-life T1/ 2 = = (15.4)
λ λ
 The half-life of any given radioactive nuclide is constant,
constant it
does not depend on the number of remaining nuclei.
nuclei
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
 The units of the half-life are second (s), minute (min), hour
(hr), day (d) and year (y). Its unit depend on the unit of decay
constant.
constant
 Table 15.2 shows the value of half-life for several isotopes.
Isotope Half-life
238 4.5 × 109 years
92 U
226 1.6 × 103 years
88 Ra
210 138 days
884 Po
234 24 days
90Th
222 3.8 days
86 Rn
214 20 minutes
83 Bi

Table 15.2
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
15.1.7 Activity of radioactive sample (A)
 dN 
 is defined as the decay rate   of a radioactive sample.
 dt 
 Its unit is number of decays per second.
second
 Other units for activity are curie (Ci)
Ci and becquerel (Bq)
Bq – S.I.
unit.
 Unit conversion:
1 Ci = 3.7 ×1010 decays per second
1 Bq = 1 decay per second
 Relation between activity (A) of radioactive sample and time t :
dN
 From the law of radioactive decay : = −λN
dN dt
and definition of activity : A =
dt
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
 Thus
A = −λN and N = N 0 e − λt
(
A = −λ N 0 e − λt
)
= ( − λ N 0 ) e − λt and A0 = −λN 0
− λt
A = A0 e (15.5)

Activity at time t Activity at time, t =0

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Example 1 :
A radioactive nuclide A disintegrates into a stable nuclide B. The
half-life of A is 5.0 days. If the initial number of nuclide A is
1.0× 1020, calculate the number of nuclide B after 20 days.
20
Solution : T1/ 2 = 5.0 days; N 0 = 1.0 × 10 ; t = 20 days
A→ B+Q
The decay constant is given by
ln 2 ln 2
λ= λ=
T1/ 2 5.0
= 0.139 days−1
The number of remaining nuclide A is
N = N 0 e − λt ( )
N = 1.0 × 10 20 e − ( 0.139 )( 20 )
= 6.2 × 1018 nuclei
The number of nuclide A that have decayed is
= 1.0 × 10 20 − 6.2 × 1018
= 9.38 × 1019 nuclei
Therefore the number of nuclide B formed is 9.38 × 1019 nuclei
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Example 2 :
a. Radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous nuclear
reaction. Explain the terms random and spontaneous.
b. 80% of a radioactive substance decays in 4.0 days. Determine
i. the decay constant,
ii. the half-life of the substance.
Solution :
a. Random means that the time of decay for each nucleus
cannot be predicted.
predicted The probability of decay for each
nucleus is the same.same
Spontaneous means it happen by itself without external
stimuli.
stimuli The decay is not affected by the physical conditions
and chemical changes.
changes

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Solution :
b. At time t = 4.0 days,
 80 
The number of remaining nuclei is N = N0 −  N0 
 100 
= 0.2 N 0 nuclei
i. By applying the exponential law of radioactive decay, thus the
decay constant is
N = N 0 e − λt 0.2 N 0 = N 0 e − λ ( 4.0 )
0.2 = e − λ ( 4.0 )
ln 0.2 = ln e − λ ( 4.0 )
ln 0.2 = −λ ( 4.0) ln e
λ = 0.402 day −1
ii. The half-life of the substance is
ln 2 ln 2
T1/ 2 = T1/ 2 =
λ 0.402
T1/ 2 = 1.72 days 19
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Example 3 :
Phosphorus-32 is a beta emitter with a decay constant of 5.6 × 10−7
s−1. For a particular application, the phosphorus-32 emits 4.0 × 107
beta particles every second. Determine
a. the half-life of the phosphorus-32,
b. the mass of pure phosphorus-32 will give this decay rate.
(Given the Avogadro constant, NA =6.02 × 1023 mol−1)
−7 dN
−1
Solution : λ = 5.6 × 10 s ; = 4.0 × 107 s −1
dt
a. The half-life of the phosphorus-32 is given by
ln 2
T1/ 2 =
λ
ln 2
=
5.6 × 10 − 7
T1/ 2 = 1.24 × 106 s
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
−7 dN
−1
Solution : λ = 5.6 × 10 s ; = −4.0 × 107 s −1
dt
b. By using the radioactive decay law, thus
dN
= −λN 0
dt
( )
− 4.0 × 107 = − 5.6 × 10 −7 N 0
N 0 = 7.14 × 1013 nuclei
6.02 × 1023 nuclei of P-32 has a mass of 32 g
 7 .14 × 1013

7.14 × 10 nuclei of P-32 has a mass of  
 6.02 × 10 23 32
13

 
= 3.80 × 10 −9 g

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Example 4 :
A thorium-228 isotope which has a half-life of 1.913 years decays
by emitting alpha particle into radium-224 nucleus. Calculate
a. the decay constant.
b. the mass of thorium-228 required to decay with activity of
12.0 Ci.
c. the number of alpha particles per second for the decay of 15.0 g
thorium-228.
(Given the Avogadro constant, NA =6.02 × 1023 mol−1)
Solution : T1/ 2 = 1.913 y = 1.913( 365 × 24 × 60 × 60)
= 6.03 × 107 s
a. The decay constant is given by
ln 2 ln 2
T1/ 2 = 7
6.03 × 10 =
λ λ
λ = 1.15 × 10 −8 s −1
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Solution :
b. By using the unit conversion ( Ci⇒ decay/second ),
1 Ci = 3.7 ×1010 decays per second
the activity isA = −12.0 Ci = ( − 12.0 ) × 3.7 × 1010
= −4.44 × 1011 decays/s
Since A = −λN then
N =−
A
N =−
( − 4.44 × 1011 )
λ 1.15 × 10 −8
= 3.86 × 1019 nuclei
If 6.02 × 1023 nuclei of Th-228 has a mass of 228 g thus
 3.86 × 1019

10 nuclei of Th-228 has a mass of 
3.86 ×
 6.02 × 1023  228
19

 
= 1.46 × 10−2 g
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Solution :
c. If 228 g of Th-228 contains of 6.02 × 1023 nuclei thus
 15.0 
15.0 g of Th-228 contains of   ( 6.02 × 10 23
)
 228 
N = 3.96 × 1022 nuclei
Therefore the number of emitted alpha particles per second is
given by
dN Ignored it.
A= = −λN
dt
( )
= 1.15 × 10 −8 × 3.96 × 10 22
A = 4.55 × 10 α − particles/second
14

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Learning Outcome:
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physic s

15.2 Radioisotope as tracers (1 hour)


At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Explain the application of radioisotopes as tracers.

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
15.2 Radioisotope as tracers
15.2.1 Radioisotope
 is defined as an isotope of an element that is radioactive.
radioactive
 It is produced in a nuclear reactor, where stable nuclei are
bombarded by high speed neutrons until they become
radioactive nuclei.
nuclei
 Examples of radioisotopes:
+ → 15 P + γ + Q
31 1 32
a. 15 P 0 n (Radio phosphorus)

P→ S+ e + Q
32
15
32
16
0
−1

11 Na + 0 n → 11 Na + γ + Q
23 1 24
b. (Radio sodium)

24
11 Na → Mg+ e + Q
24
12
0
−1

13 Al + γ + Q
A l+ 01 n→ 28
27
c. 13 (Radio aluminum)

28
13 Al→ 14
28
Si + −01 e + Q 26
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
15.2.2 Radioisotope as tracers
 Since radioisotope has the same chemical properties as the
stable isotopes then they can be used to trace the path made
by the stable isotopes.
isotopes
 Its method :
 A small amount of suitable radioisotope is either
swallowed by the patient or injected into the body of the
patient.
patient
 After a while certain part of the body will have absorbed
either a normal amount, or an amount which is larger than
normal or less than normal of the radioisotope. A detector
(such as Geiger counter ,gamma camera,
camera etc..) then
measures the count rate at the part of the body
concerned.
concerned
 It is used to investigate organs in human body such as kidney,
thyroid gland, heart, brain, and etc..
 It also used to monitor the blood flow and measure the blood
volume.
volume 27
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Example 5 :
A small volume of a solution which contained a radioactive isotope
of sodium had an activity of 12000 disintegrations per minute when
it was injected into the bloodstream of a patient. After 30 hours the
activity of 1.0 cm3 of the blood was found to be 0.50 disintegrations
per minute. If the half-life of the sodium isotope is taken as 15
hours, estimate the volume of blood in the patient.
Solution : T1/ 2 = 15 h; A0 = 12000 min −1 ; t = 30 h
The decay constant of the sodium isotope is
ln 2 ln 2
T1/ 2 = 15 =
λ λ
λ = 4.62 × 10 −2 h −1
The activity of sodium after 30 h is given by
A = A0 e − λt
− ( 4.62×10 −2 ) ( 30 )
= (12000) e
A = 3000 min −1
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
−1
Solution : T1/ 2 = 15 h; A0 = 12000 min ; t = 30 h
In the dilution tracing method, the activity of the sample, A is
proportional to the volume of the sample present, V.
A∝V
then A1 = kV1 and A2 = kV2
initial final
thus the ratio of activities is given by
A1 V1
= (15.6)
A2 V2
Therefore the volume of the blood is
0.5 1
=
3000 V2
V2 = 6000 cm 3

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
15.2.3 Other uses of radioisotope
In medicine
 To destroy cancer cells by gamma-ray from a high-activity

source of Co-60.
 To treat deep-lying tumors by planting radium-226 or caesium-
137 inside the body close to the tumor.
In agriculture
 To enable scientists to formulate fertilizers that will increase the

production of food.
 To develop new strains of food crops that are resistant to
diseases, give high yield and are of high quality.
 To increase the time for food preservation.

30
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
In industry
 To measure the wear and tear of machine part and the

effectiveness of lubricants.
 To detect flaws in underground pipes e.g. pipes use to carry
natural petroleum gas.
 To monitor the thickness of metal sheet during manufacture by
passing it between gamma-ray and a suitable detector.
In archaeology and geology
 To estimate the age of an archaeological object found by

referring to carbon-14 dating.


 To estimate the geological age of a rock by referring to
potassium-40 dating.

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Example 6 :
Radioactive iodine isotope ( I)
131 of half-life 8.0 days is used for
53
the treatment of thyroid gland cancer. A certain sample is required to
have an activity of 8.0 × 105 Bq at the time it is injected into the patient.
a. Calculate the mass of the iodine-131 present in the sample to
produce the required activity.
b. If it takes 24 hours to deliver the sample to the hospital, what
should be the initial mass of the sample?
c. What is the activity of the sample after 24 hours in the body of the
patient?
(Given the Avogadro constant, NA =6.02 × 1023 mol−1)

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Solution : T1/ 2 = 8.0( 24 × 60 × 60) = 6.91× 105 s;
A0 = 8.0 × 105 Bq
The decay constant of the iodine isotope is
ln 2 ln 2
T1/ 2 = 6.91× 10 =5

λ λ
λ = 1.00 × 10−6 s −1
a. From the relation between the decay rate and activity,
 dN 
A0 =  
 dt  0
A0 = −λN 0
8.0 × 105 = (1.00 × 10 −6 ) N 0
N 0 = 8.0 × 1011 nuclei
If 6.02 × 1023 nuclei of I-131 has a mass of 131 g thus
 8.0 × 1011 
nuclei of I-131 has a mass of 
 6.02 × 1023 131
8.0 × 1011
 
−10
= 1.74 × 10 g 33
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Solution : T1/ 2 = 8.0( 24 × 60 × 60) = 6.91× 105 s;
A0 = 8.0 × 105 Bq
b. Given t = 24 hr = 24 × 3600 = 8.64 × 10 s
4

−10
Let N : mass of I-131 after 24 hours = 1.74 × 10 g
N0 : initial mass of I-131
By applying the exponential law of radioactive decay, thus
N = N 0 e − λt
1.74 × 10 = N 0 e (
−10 )( )
− 1.00×10 −6 8.64×10 4

N 0 = (1.74 × 10 )e
−10 (1.00×10 −6 )( 8.64×10 4 )

N 0 = 1.90 × 10−10 g
c. Given t = 24 hr = 24 × 3600 = 8.64 × 10
4
s
The activity of the sample is
A = A0 e − λt
(
A = 8.0 × 10 e ( 5
) )(
− 1.00×10 −6 8.64×10 4 )
A = 7.34 × 10 Bq
5
34
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Example 7 :
An archeologist on a dig finds a fragment of an ancient basket
woven from grass. Later, it is determined that the carbon-14
content of the grass in the basket is 9.25% that of an equal carbon
sample from the present day grass. If the half-life of the carbon-14
is 5730 years, determine the age of the basket.
 9.25  −2
Solution : N =  N 0 = 9.25 × 10 N 0 ; T1/2 = 5730 years
 100 
The decay constant of carbon-14 is
ln 2 ln 2
T1/ 2 = 5730 =
λ λ
λ = 1.21 × 10 −4 y −1
The age of the basket is given by
N = N 0e − λt
9.25 × 10 N 0 = N 0 e (
−2 )
− 1.21×10 −4 t

( ) (
ln 9.25 × 10 −2 = − 1.21× 10 −4 t ln e )
t = 19674 years 35
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15
Exercise 15.1 :
Given NA =6.02× 1023 mol−1
1. Living wood takes in radioactive carbon-14 from the
atmosphere during the process of photosynthesis, the ratio of
carbon-14 to carbon-12 atoms being 1.25 to 1012 . When the
wood dies the carbon-14 decays, its half-life being 5600 years.
4 g of carbon from a piece of dead wood gave a total count rate
of 20.0 disintegrations per minute. Determine the age of the
piece of wood.
ANS. : 8754 years
2. A drug prepared for a patient is tagged with Tc-99 which has a
half-life of 6.05 h.
a. What is the decay constant of this isotope?
b. How many Tc-99 nuclei are required to give an activity of
1.50 µ Ci?
c. If the drug of activity in (b) is injected into the patient 2.05 h
after it is prepared, determine the drug’s activity.
(Physics, 3rd edition, James S. Walker, Q27&28, p.1107)
ANS. : 0.115 h−1; 1.7× 109 nuclei; 1.19 µ Ci 36
PHYSICS CHAPTER 15

Good luck
For
2nd semester examination

37

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