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LANDFORMS

(Due To Surface Processes)

INTRODUCTION
Study of surface features of the Earth, caused by rivers;
wind, glaciers, groundwater or Coastal processes.

Evolution and structure of various landforms related to


mountains, plains, plateaus, valleys and basins are
specialized field of study within geomorphology.

RIVER (FLUVIAL) SYSTEM


River (Channelized Running water) is the most important agent of
erosion on the continents and the stream valleys are the most common
landforms.
Rivers flowing to the oceans drain about 68 % of the Earth's land
surface. The remainder of the land either is covered by ice or drains to
closed inland basins (Lakes).
Rivers gradually mould the land by eroding away the material in some
place and depositing it in other.
River System:
A river system consists of a main channel (trunk stream) and all
of the tributaries that flow into it or joining the trunk stream.

River Terminology
Stream is smaller than a River. It is also an umbrella term used in the
scientific community for all flowing natural waters, regardless of size.
Stream system has a number of components defined in terms of their stream
order as explained in figure.

Parts of stream:

Upstream: Towards headwater (up the regional slope of erosion).


Downstream: Towards mouth of river (delta).
Tributary: A stream flowing into or joining a larger stream.
Distributaries: Numerous streams branches into which a river
divides where it reaches its delta.

River System

RIVER SUBSYSTEMS
A River system can be divided into three subsystems:
Collecting system (branches) -- Consisting of a network of
tributaries in the headwater region, collects and funnels water and
sediment to the main stream.
Transporting system (trunk) -- The main trunk stream, which
functions as a channel through which water and sediment move from
the collecting area toward the ocean. (Erosion and deposition also
occur in a river's transporting system).
Dispersing system (roots) -- Consists of a network of distributaries at
the mouth of a river (delta), where sediment and water are dispersed
into an ocean, a lake, or a dry basin.

Drainage Pattern
Dendritic

Dendritic Pattern:
Irregular branching pattern (tree like) in
many direction.
It is common in massive rocks and in flat
lying strata
Due to strong resistance of rocks headward
development of valley is negligible.

Parallel

Parallel pattern:
Parallel or sub-parallel drainage formed on
sloping surface.
Common in terrain with homogeneous
rocks.
Development of parallel narrow channels
are commonly seen on gently sloping
surface

Radial Pattern:
Streams radiates out from the center of the
topograhic high
common in Volcanic terrain / dome structure.
Centripetal pattern:
Streams converge toward a central depression,
such as a volcanic crater or caldera, a structural
basin, basin created by dissolution of carbonate
rock.
Rectangular Pattern:
Channels marked by right-angle bends.
Commonly due to presence of joints and
fractures in the massive rocks or foliation in
metamorphic rocks

Trellis Pattern:
Rectangular arrangement of channels in which
principal tributary streams are parallel and very
long.
This pattern is common in areas where the
outcropping edge of folded sedimentary rocks
form long and nearly parallel belts.

Annular Pattern:
Streams follow nearly circular or concentric
paths along belts of weak rocks that ring a
dissected dome or basin (where erosion has
exposed successive belts of rock of varying
degrees of erodibility).

River through its course

FLUVIAL LANDFORMS- ALLUVIAL FAN:

Fan-shaped
deposits of water
transported material
(alluvium).

Form at the base of topographic features where there is a marked


break in slope.
Alluvial fans tend to be coarse-grained at their mouths. However,
they can be relatively fine-grained at their edges.

FLUVIAL LANDFORMS- BRAIDED RIVER:

Braided Rivers exhibit numerous channels that split off and rejoin
each other to give a braided appearance.
They typically carry coarse-grained sediment down a steep gradient.

FLUVIAL LANDFORMS- MEANDERING RIVER:


In contrast to braided rivers,
meandering rivers typically
contain one channel that winds its
way across the floodplain.

As it flows, it deposits
sediment on inside of
curves
(point
bar
deposits), and erode the
banks on the outside of
curves.

DELTA
The fluvial sediment that accumulates
where a stream enters a lake or ocean.
The Ganga and Brahmaputra Rivers
combined have formed one of the largest
deltas in the world, comprising
approximately 105 640 km2.

Bay of Bengal

Undercutting by rivers & formation of new Terraces:


Flat-topped, steep-sided
benches elevated above
floodplain.
Form due to
Relative base level fall
(e.g. uplift)
Change in discharge:
sediment yield.
Base level: The level upto
which a river can cut its
base.

Aeolian Landforms
Aeolian landform is a feature of the Earth's surface produced by
either the erosive or constructive action of the Wind.
This process is not unique to earth but it has been observed and
studied on other planets, most notably Mars.
In aeolian processes, wind erodes, transports and deposits particles
of sediment.

Aeolian Erosional Processes


Deflation:
The removal of loose, fine-grained particles.
Abrasion:
The wearing down of surfaces by the grinding
action and sandblasting of windborne
particles.

Aeolian erosional landforms

Aeolian Transport Processes

Aeolian Depositional Landforms


Dunes: It is the mound or ridge of sand or other loose sediment formed
by the wind in a desert due to any obstacle in its flow.
Types:
DUNES: Linear ridges - (Transverse & Longitudinal).
BARCHAN (Crescent shaped)

Types of Dunes (contd.)


Barchans

Barchans: Migrating crescent dune with horns pointing downwind; form


where strong winds blow in a consistent direction. Move fast. Common in
central Asia and Sahara. Can reach hundreds of feet in height.

Types of Dunes (contd.)


Transverse Dunes

Transverse Dunes : parallel waves of crescent dunes perpendicular to


wind direction; migrate downwind.
Found in areas with large supply of sand.

Types of Dunes (contd.)


Longitudinal dunes (Seifs)

Seifs : multiple very long narrow, parallel dunes. May be caused in areas
with at least two dominant wind directions. Can be tens of miles long.

Aeolian Processes summary


Erosion :
Wind erodes the Earth's surface by deflation (the removal of loose,
fine-grained particles), by the turbulent eddy action of the wind and
by abrasion (the wearing down of surfaces by the grinding action
and sandblasting of windborne particles).
Transportation :
Particles are transported by winds through suspension, saltation,
and creep.
Deposition:
Wind-deposited materials hold clues to past as well as to present
wind directions and intensities. These features help us understand
the present climate and the forces that molded it. Wind-deposited
sand bodies occur as sand sheets, ripples, and dunes.

GLACIAL LANDFORMS
Definition:
Glacier is a large, slow moving mass of ice, formed
by compacted layers of snow that slowly deforms
and flows in response to gravity.

FORMATION OF GLACIERS
SNOW TO GLACIERS

1. Precipitation in the form


of SNOW in higher
reaches (e.g. Himalayas)
& latitudes (e.g. Polar
areas).
Snow

Granular snow

(200-400
kg /m3 )

(50-200 kg /m3 )

(in Large amounts)

Granular snow

Firn

Firn

Ice

(400-830 kg/ m3 )
(830-910 kg /m3 )

Ice

Flowing ice
(one melt season (Glacier)

FORMATION OF GLACIAL ICE


For a glacier to form the following requirements must be met:
(i)Precipitation in the form of SNOW
(ii)Must fall on a surface where it can accumulate in large volumes;
(iii)It must accumulate in an area where the temperature regime allows
the snow to remain through at least one melt season; and
(iv)The snow must undergo metamorphism which changes it to glacier
ice.
In general, these conditions are found in higher latitudes and high
altitudes.
As layers of snow accumulate, the older snow becomes compacted
due to the weight of overlying snow. Eventually most of the air is
squeezed out, and the result is glacial ice.

ANATOMY OF GLACIERS

ANATOMY OF GLACIERS
Zone of Accumulation
Upper part of the glacier with highest elevation
Snowfall Exceeds Melting & Evaporation
Excess Snow Turns to Ice & Flows Out.
Zone of Melting or Ablation (Melting + evaporation)
Lower part of the glacier
Melting & Evaporation Exceeds Snowfall
Melting Excess Made up by Ice Flowing in.
Equilibrium Line
Line between accumulation and ablation zones
This is a conceptual line assuming that around this line ablation
equals accumulation in a year.
Terminus of Glacier
It is the part from where the melt water emerges out.

ICE SHEET
(over 50,000 sq km).

(GREENLAND)

Vatnajvkull, Iceland's
largest ice cap

ICE CAPS (less


than 50,000 sq km):

(ICELAND)

VALLEY GLACIERS (up to


100 km in length): (Himalaya,
Alpine)

PIEDMONT GLACIERS
At the foot of steeper slopes

(e.g. Malaspina Glacier, Alaska).

PIEDMONT GLACIERS

PIEDMONT GLACIERS
PIEDMONT GLACIERS

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

DEPOSITION LANDFORMS (Contd.)


Moraine:
An accumulation of unconsolidated material deposited by glaciers.
These accumulations tend to be unsorted.

Medial Moraine

SIGNIFICANCE OF GLACIER STUDIES

Mapping and monitoring of glaciers is important and justified by


their significance for:
Management and planning of water resources,
Delineating the major climatic trends and forecasting
Snow and glacial hazard assessment and
Sea- level changes.

GLACIER RETREAT - AN INDIAN SCENARIO


Himalaya means the abode of Snow. True to its name, the Himalaya
encompasses the worlds 3rd largest glacier systems after Antarctica and
Greenland.
The Himalayan glaciers feed three major rivers, the Indus, Ganges
and Brahmaputra.
But most of the Himalayan glaciers have been thinning and retreating
over the past 3-4 decades.
In India, there are more than 5,000 glaciers on the southern slope of
Himalayas covering an area of nearly 38,000 Km2.
The distributions of these glacier are higher in North-West than in the
North-Eastern part of the Indian.

RETREAT OF IMPORTANT GLACIERS


IN HIMALAYAS

EXAMPLES OF GLACIER RETREAT IN HIMALAYAS

CHANGE IN THE GLACIER BOUNDARY FROM 1780 TO 2001

CORAL REEFS:
Atolls are roughly circular (or occasionally horseshoe-shaped) oceanic reef
complexes surrounding a large, deep central lagoon.
Barrier reefs are reef systems that parallel the shore and are separated from
it by a wide lagoon that contain at least some deep portions.
Fringing reef is a reef system growing fairly close to or
directly from shore with an entirely shallow (less than
about 10m) lagoon, or no lagoon at all.

THANK YOU

Depending on the magnitude of water flow,


stream system is sub-classified into a number of units,
as given below:
Creek is smaller than a Stream,
Brook is smaller Creek,
Rivulet is smaller that Brook.
Gully is the 1st order stream
Creek, Brook & Rivulet terms are applied interchangeably to
any

small river.

Stream Types

Consequent Stream:
A stream following the
slope. Development of
slope may be due to sudden
tectonic uplift.

Subsequent Stream:
A stream that develops later on,
carving the softer rocks and flow at
almost right angle to the original slope
of the land

Levees

Oxbow lakes

Young stream

Vegetation on levee

Some Important Aeolian landforms (contd.)

Inselberg : island mountains rise abruptly out of desert


landscapes
Bornhardt : highly resistant rock landform; a type of
inselberg.

Groundwater
Groundwater: The zone of subsurface water in which all pore
spaces or fractures in the rock are filled with water (saturated).

Water table: The depth at which soil pore spaces or


fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated
with water is called the water table.

Aquifer: A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is


called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of
water.

Travertine is a terrestrial sedimentary rock, formed by the precipitation


of carbonate minerals from solution in ground and surface waters

ANATOMY OF GLACIERS

EQUILIBRIUM LINE
or

TERMINUS

TYPES OF GLACIERS
Ice Sheets are enormous continental masses of glacial ice and snow
expanding over 50,000 sq km. E.g.- Antarctic and Greenland ice
sheets.
Ice Caps are miniature ice sheets, covering less than 50,000 sq km.
E.g.-Iceland.
Valley Glaciers these glaciers spill down valleys, looking like giant
tongues. They may be quite long, up to 100 km in length, but those
having a length of 10-20 km are more common. E.g.- Himalayan and
Alpine glaciers.
Piedmont Glaciers occur when steep valley glaciers spill into
relatively flat plains, where they spill into bulb like lobes. E.g.
Malaspina Glacier, Alaska.

GLACIAL PLUMBING

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Moulins:
Holes in glaciers that water flows through Connect surface streams to
subsurface streams
Cirque :
A semicircular or amphitheater-shaped bedrock feature created as
glaciers scour back into the mountain. This is where the snow and ice
forming the glacier first accumulates; it is the "headwatersof a glacier.
Moulins

Cirque

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS (Contd.)


Arete:
Steep-sided, sharp-edged bedrock ridge formed by two glaciers
eroding away on opposite sides of the ridge.
Horn:
A pyramid-shaped mountain peak created by several glaciers
eroding away at different sides of the same mountain.
Arete

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS (Contd.)


Col:
A low spot or pass along a cirque or an arete.
Striations :
Lines etched in bedrock underlying glaciers as individual particles
embedded in the glacier scratch the underlying bedrock. These lines
indicate the orientation of Glacial flow.
Striations

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS (Contd.)


Nunatak :
Peak surrounded by glaciers but not itself glaciated.
Tarn :
A glacial lake produced by scouring. These are often found in cirques.

Nunatak

Tarn

DEPOSITION LANDFORMS (Contd.)


Till :
Fine unconsolidated glacial deposits that compose moraines.
Outwash plain :
Debris deposited in front of glaciers. Often sorted.

DEPOSITION LANDFORMS (Contd.)


Esker :
Long-sinuous ridge formed by sediment deposition in sub-glacial
streams.
Kettle lake :

Esker

Formed by melting ice chunks in glacial debris.

DEPOSITION LANDFORMS (Contd.)


Erratics :
Large boulders left by glaciers in areas where they obviously
dont belong.
Can be transported from 10s to 100s of kilometers form point
of origin.

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