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INTRODUCTION
Study of surface features of the Earth, caused by rivers;
wind, glaciers, groundwater or Coastal processes.
River Terminology
Stream is smaller than a River. It is also an umbrella term used in the
scientific community for all flowing natural waters, regardless of size.
Stream system has a number of components defined in terms of their stream
order as explained in figure.
Parts of stream:
River System
RIVER SUBSYSTEMS
A River system can be divided into three subsystems:
Collecting system (branches) -- Consisting of a network of
tributaries in the headwater region, collects and funnels water and
sediment to the main stream.
Transporting system (trunk) -- The main trunk stream, which
functions as a channel through which water and sediment move from
the collecting area toward the ocean. (Erosion and deposition also
occur in a river's transporting system).
Dispersing system (roots) -- Consists of a network of distributaries at
the mouth of a river (delta), where sediment and water are dispersed
into an ocean, a lake, or a dry basin.
Drainage Pattern
Dendritic
Dendritic Pattern:
Irregular branching pattern (tree like) in
many direction.
It is common in massive rocks and in flat
lying strata
Due to strong resistance of rocks headward
development of valley is negligible.
Parallel
Parallel pattern:
Parallel or sub-parallel drainage formed on
sloping surface.
Common in terrain with homogeneous
rocks.
Development of parallel narrow channels
are commonly seen on gently sloping
surface
Radial Pattern:
Streams radiates out from the center of the
topograhic high
common in Volcanic terrain / dome structure.
Centripetal pattern:
Streams converge toward a central depression,
such as a volcanic crater or caldera, a structural
basin, basin created by dissolution of carbonate
rock.
Rectangular Pattern:
Channels marked by right-angle bends.
Commonly due to presence of joints and
fractures in the massive rocks or foliation in
metamorphic rocks
Trellis Pattern:
Rectangular arrangement of channels in which
principal tributary streams are parallel and very
long.
This pattern is common in areas where the
outcropping edge of folded sedimentary rocks
form long and nearly parallel belts.
Annular Pattern:
Streams follow nearly circular or concentric
paths along belts of weak rocks that ring a
dissected dome or basin (where erosion has
exposed successive belts of rock of varying
degrees of erodibility).
Fan-shaped
deposits of water
transported material
(alluvium).
Braided Rivers exhibit numerous channels that split off and rejoin
each other to give a braided appearance.
They typically carry coarse-grained sediment down a steep gradient.
As it flows, it deposits
sediment on inside of
curves
(point
bar
deposits), and erode the
banks on the outside of
curves.
DELTA
The fluvial sediment that accumulates
where a stream enters a lake or ocean.
The Ganga and Brahmaputra Rivers
combined have formed one of the largest
deltas in the world, comprising
approximately 105 640 km2.
Bay of Bengal
Aeolian Landforms
Aeolian landform is a feature of the Earth's surface produced by
either the erosive or constructive action of the Wind.
This process is not unique to earth but it has been observed and
studied on other planets, most notably Mars.
In aeolian processes, wind erodes, transports and deposits particles
of sediment.
Seifs : multiple very long narrow, parallel dunes. May be caused in areas
with at least two dominant wind directions. Can be tens of miles long.
GLACIAL LANDFORMS
Definition:
Glacier is a large, slow moving mass of ice, formed
by compacted layers of snow that slowly deforms
and flows in response to gravity.
FORMATION OF GLACIERS
SNOW TO GLACIERS
Granular snow
(200-400
kg /m3 )
(50-200 kg /m3 )
Granular snow
Firn
Firn
Ice
(400-830 kg/ m3 )
(830-910 kg /m3 )
Ice
Flowing ice
(one melt season (Glacier)
ANATOMY OF GLACIERS
ANATOMY OF GLACIERS
Zone of Accumulation
Upper part of the glacier with highest elevation
Snowfall Exceeds Melting & Evaporation
Excess Snow Turns to Ice & Flows Out.
Zone of Melting or Ablation (Melting + evaporation)
Lower part of the glacier
Melting & Evaporation Exceeds Snowfall
Melting Excess Made up by Ice Flowing in.
Equilibrium Line
Line between accumulation and ablation zones
This is a conceptual line assuming that around this line ablation
equals accumulation in a year.
Terminus of Glacier
It is the part from where the melt water emerges out.
ICE SHEET
(over 50,000 sq km).
(GREENLAND)
Vatnajvkull, Iceland's
largest ice cap
(ICELAND)
PIEDMONT GLACIERS
At the foot of steeper slopes
PIEDMONT GLACIERS
PIEDMONT GLACIERS
PIEDMONT GLACIERS
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Medial Moraine
CORAL REEFS:
Atolls are roughly circular (or occasionally horseshoe-shaped) oceanic reef
complexes surrounding a large, deep central lagoon.
Barrier reefs are reef systems that parallel the shore and are separated from
it by a wide lagoon that contain at least some deep portions.
Fringing reef is a reef system growing fairly close to or
directly from shore with an entirely shallow (less than
about 10m) lagoon, or no lagoon at all.
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small river.
Stream Types
Consequent Stream:
A stream following the
slope. Development of
slope may be due to sudden
tectonic uplift.
Subsequent Stream:
A stream that develops later on,
carving the softer rocks and flow at
almost right angle to the original slope
of the land
Levees
Oxbow lakes
Young stream
Vegetation on levee
Groundwater
Groundwater: The zone of subsurface water in which all pore
spaces or fractures in the rock are filled with water (saturated).
ANATOMY OF GLACIERS
EQUILIBRIUM LINE
or
TERMINUS
TYPES OF GLACIERS
Ice Sheets are enormous continental masses of glacial ice and snow
expanding over 50,000 sq km. E.g.- Antarctic and Greenland ice
sheets.
Ice Caps are miniature ice sheets, covering less than 50,000 sq km.
E.g.-Iceland.
Valley Glaciers these glaciers spill down valleys, looking like giant
tongues. They may be quite long, up to 100 km in length, but those
having a length of 10-20 km are more common. E.g.- Himalayan and
Alpine glaciers.
Piedmont Glaciers occur when steep valley glaciers spill into
relatively flat plains, where they spill into bulb like lobes. E.g.
Malaspina Glacier, Alaska.
GLACIAL PLUMBING
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Moulins:
Holes in glaciers that water flows through Connect surface streams to
subsurface streams
Cirque :
A semicircular or amphitheater-shaped bedrock feature created as
glaciers scour back into the mountain. This is where the snow and ice
forming the glacier first accumulates; it is the "headwatersof a glacier.
Moulins
Cirque
Nunatak
Tarn
Esker