Human Variation and Adaptation

Chapter Outline
Historical

Views of Human Variation

The Concept of Race
Racism
Intelligence
Contemporary Interpretations of Human
Variation

Chapter Outline
Human

Biocultural Evolution
Population Genetics
The Adaptive Significance of Human Variation
The Continuing Impact of Infectious Disease

Historical Views of Human Variation

Two

schools of thought developed to explain

diversity:

Monogenists believed that all humans were

descended from a original pair of humans.
Polygenists believed that all humans were
descended from a number of pairs of humans.

Historical Views of Human Variation

Biological

determinism - cultural and

biological variations are inherited in the same
way.
Eugenics - "race improvement" through
forced sterilization of members of some groups
and encouraged reproduction among others.

Traditional Concept of Race

Since the 1600s, race has been used to refer to

culturally defined groups.
Race is used as a biological term, but has enormous
social significance.
"Racial traits" are not the only phenotypic expressions
that contribute to social identity: sex and age are also
critically important.
In the 1950's the use of the term "race" was replaced
with "ethnicity "

Allele Frequencies
Within and Between Populations

After World War II, the study of human variation shifted

to the study of differences in allele frequencies within
and between populations.
The application of evolutionary principles to human
variation has replaced the view that was based solely
on observed phenotype.
Races are no longer viewed as fixed biological entities,
composed of individuals fitting a particular type.

Groupings Used by Lewontin in

Population Genetics Study (1972)
Geographical Group
Caucasians
Black Africans

Examples of Populations Included

Arabs, Armenians, Tristan da Cunhans
Bantu, San, U.S. blacks

Asians

Ainu, Chinese, Turks

South Asians

Andamanese, Tamils

Amerinds

Aleuts, Navaho, Yanomama

Oceanians

Easter Islanders, Micronesians

Australians

All treated as a single group

Racism
Based

on false belief that intellect and cultural

factors are inherited with physical
characteristics.
Uses culturally defined variables to typify all
members of particular populations.
Assumes that one's own group is superior.
A cultural phenomenon found worldwide.

Intelligence

Genetic and environmental factors contribute to

intelligence.
Many psychologists say IQ scores measure life
experience.
Innate differences in abilities reflect variation within
populations, not differences between groups.
There is no convincing evidence that populations vary
in regard to intelligence.

Adaptive Significance of Human

Variation

Human variation is the result of adaptations to

environmental conditions.
Physiological response to the environment
operates at two levels:
1.

2.

Long-term (genetic) evolutionary changes

characterize all individuals within a population or
species.
Short-term, temporary physiological response is
called acclimatization.

Pigmentation
and Geographical Divisions

Before 1500, skin color in populations followed a

geographical distribution, particularly in the Old World.
Populations with the greatest amount of
pigmentation are found in the tropics.
Populations with lighter skin color are associated
with more northern latitudes.

Skin Color
Influenced by three substances:
1. Hemoglobin, when it is carrying oxygen, gives a
reddish tinge to the skin.
2. Carotene, a plant pigment which the body
synthesizes into vitamin A, provides a yellowish
cast.
3. Melanin, has the ability to absorb ultraviolet
radiation preventing damage to DNA.

Thermal Environment

Mammals and birds have evolved complex

physiological mechanisms to maintain a constant body
temperature.
Humans are found in a wide variety of thermal
environments, ranging from 120 F to -60 F.

Human Response to Heat

Long-term

adaptations to heat evolved in our

ancestors:

Sweat Glands
Vasodilation

Bergmann's

rule - body size tends to be

greater in populations that live in cold
environments.

Human Response to Cold

Short-term

responses to cold:

Metabolic rate and shivering

Narrowing of blood vessels to reduce blood flow
from the skin, vasoconstriction.
Increases in metabolic rate to release energy in the
form of heat.

High Altitude
Multiple

factors produce stress on the human

body at higher altitudes:

Hypoxia (reduced available oxygen)

Intense solar radiation
Cold
Low humidity
Wind (which amplifies cold stress)

Infectious Disease
Caused

by invading organisms such as

bacteria, viruses, or fungi.
Throughout evolution, disease has exerted
selective pressures on human populations.
Disease influences the frequency of certain
alleles that affect the immune response.

Small Pox
The

only disease considered to be eliminated

as a result of medical technology
Smallpox has a higher incidence in those with
type A or AB than in those type O blood.
The immune systems of individuals with type A
antigen may not recognize the small pox
antigen as a threat.

Impact of Infectious Disease

Before

the 20th century, infectious disease

was the number one limiting factor to human
populations.
Since the 1940s, the use of antibiotics has
reduced mortality resulting from infectious
disease.

Impact of Infectious Disease

In

the late 1960s, the surgeon general declared

the war against infectious disease won.
Between 1980 and 1992 deaths from infectious
disease increased by 58%.
Increases in the prevalence of infectious
disease may be due to overuse of antibiotics.

Environmental Factors.
Global

warming may expand the range of

tropical diseases.
The spread of disease is associated with
encountering people; this includes crossing
borders and penetrating remote areas.
The increasingly large human population leads
to overcrowding, unsanitary conditions and the
spread of communicable disease.