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Basin Evolution and Classification

 Basin-Forming Tectonics

 Basin Modifying Tectonics

 Basin Classification
BASIN EVOLUTION
• Key factors for basin evolution include,
• Basin configuration,
• Nature of sedimentary fill in space and
time,
• Type of structural features,
• Position in the geotectonic framework
SEDIMENTARY BASINS: EVOLUTION
AND
CATEGORISATION
•A basin is born from the meting of a sedimentary deposit and a
more or less pronounced concavity in the basement.

•The Earth’s surface exhibits a wide variety of sedimentary


basins, in different stages of evolution, at distinct ages and in
varied geodynamic contexts.

•The spatio-temporal distribution of basins and their


characteristics follow a two fold logic:

•Geodynamical situational logic- organised in accordance with


their situation in relation to lithospheric plates- historical logic.
Basin Classification
Beginning roughly around the mid-1960s, several
attempts were made to develop a global basin
classification system that would incorporate all the
data then available.
• One purpose of these attempts was simply to sort
through the data and form an orderly geologic system.
• However, petroleum explorationists had a second
purpose in mind: if certain types of basins were found
to be consistently more productive than others, a
company could gain a competitive advantage by
targeting these sites in its exploration ventures.
Basin Classification
• A number of these classification schemes are published
including those of Bally, Blois, Klemme and Kingston.
 Bally's work is based on the tectonic history of basins.
 Blois and Klemme's work also used plate tectonic
historical terms, and added productivity data.
 Kingston's system added a systematic nomenclature,
designed to allow finer detail in describing the tectonic
history of individual basins.
Basin Classification I

•Interior basins - large, ovate downwarps within stable cratonic


shields (Michigan Basin)
•Rift basins - narrow, fault-bounded valleys of various
dimensions (East African Rift System)
•Aulacogens - failed rift arm at triple-point junction (Reelfoot
Rift)
•Passive Continental Margin - Atlantic-type margins with
sedimentary prism on shelf, slope, and rise
CONTINENTAL EXTENSION AND FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY BASINS

Modern Ideas
Many (if not the majority) of steeply dipping normal faults are actually curved (concave-upward) and
become shallow-dipping and sub-horizontal at depth. These are now known as listric faults. As the
lithosphere is stretched during continental extension, the ductile deeper crust thins by pure shear, while
the upper crust is broken up and pulled apart by listric faults which 'bottom out' in the ductile layer. At
the surface of course these have the appearance of graben. This is the essence of McKenzie-type and
other recent models of basin formation. As the sub-continental (i.e. mantle) lithosphere is thinned by
stretching it is of course partly replaced by hotter asthenosphere. This will gradually cool on a time scale
of the order of 50 - 100 m.y., and as it cools it becomes denser and the shallow basin above gradually
subsides and is progressively filled with shallow-water sediment. The amount of subsidence will depend
on the initial amount of stretching. This can usually be estimated and is known as the stretching factor,
or "beta factor". The parameter b is defined quite simpy as b/a where a was the initial width and b is the
stretched width. A b factor of 1.2 will give ca. 3 km subsidence. With complete rifting (to form ocean crust
and an ocean basin) then b approaches infinity.
The important difference is in the recognition of low-angle detachments (superficially like thrusts,
but with movement sense as in normal fault), first proposed for the Basin & Range province in the
western USA.
These may bottom out in the lower crust or the upper mantle. The main effect is to introduce
asymmetry compared with the pure shear uniform-stretching McKenzie-type model, so that basins
associated with the thermal subsidence phase may be offset from the thin-skinned basins
associated with the initial rifting.
Magmatic effects (melting resulting from the uprising asthenosphere) may be offset from the main
sedimentary basins. Because of the asymmetry, the continental margins on the two sides of an
opening ocean may have very different profiles.
Stages in the evolution of a rift basin. (a) Early rifting
associated with several minor, relatively isolated normal
faults. (b) Mature rifting with through-going boundary
fault zone, widespread deposition, and footwall uplift
and erosion.
Idealized rift basin showing unconformity-bounded
tectonostratigraphic packages. Thin black lines represent
stratal truncation beneath unconformities; red half-
arrows represent onlaps.
 
 
 
Geometry of a simple half graben.
(a) Map-view geometry.
(b) Geometry along a cross section oriented perpendicular to the
boundary fault, showing wedge-shaped basin in which synrift
strata exhibit a fanning geometry, thicken toward the boundary
fault, and onlap prerift rocks.
(c) Geometry along a cross section oriented parallel to the boundary
fault, showing syncline-shaped basin in which synrift strata thin
away from the center of the basin and onlap prerift rocks.
Simple filling model for a growing half-graben basin shown in map view (stages 1-4), longitudinal cross section
(stages 1-5), and transverse cross section (stages 1-4). Dashed line represents lake level. The relationship between
capacity and sediment supply determines whether sedimentation is fluvial or lacustrine.
This block model shows the subsurface configuration found at an axial
margin delta system in a tropical rift valley lake. Such settings are
typically major entry points for clastic material introduced into rift
basins. Principal elements in the model include stacked progradational
deltas, subaqueous fault controlled channels, and deep-water, organic-
rich, hemipelagic sediments. Most subsidence in this part of the rift
valley is accommodated by displacement on the main basin border fault.
Rift Basin Inversion

Inversion resulted from ridge push


and/or continental resistance to drift
during the initial stages of seafloor
spreading
Top section: model with extension and no
shortening; a half graben containing very
gently dipping synrift units is present.

Middle section: model with extension followed


by minor shortening; a subtle anticline has
formed in the half graben, and is associated
with minor steepening of the dip of synrift
layers.

Bottom section: model with extension


followed by major shortening. The anticline in
the half graben is more prominent, and is
associated with significant steepening of the
dip of synrift strata. New reverse faults have
formed in the prerift layers. Although the
inversion is obvious in this model, erosion of
material down to the level of the red line would
remove the most obvious evidence of
inversion in the half graben. Furthermore, the
prominent reverse faults cutting the prerift
units could be interpreted to indicate prerift
contractional deformation

Experimental models of inversion structures. Cross sections through three clay models showing
development of inversion structures (after Eisenstadt and Withjack, 1995). In each model, a clay layer (with
colored sub-layers) covered two overlapping metal plates. Movement of the lower plate created extension
or shortening. Thin clay layers are prerift; thick clay layers are synrift; top-most layer is postrift and pre-
inversion.
.

Examples of positive inversion structures. a) Cross section across part of Sunda arc. During
inversion, normal faults became reverse faults, producing synclines and anticlines with harpoon
geometries (after Letouzey, 1990). b) Interpreted line drawings (with 3:1 and 1:1 vertical
exaggeration) of AGSO Line 110-12 from Exmouth sub-basin, NW Shelf Australia (after
Withjack & Eisenstadt, 1999). During Miocene inversion, deep-seated normal faults became
reverse faults. In response, gentle monoclines formed in the shallow, postrift strata.
Schematic NW-SE cross sections showing development, chronologically from bottom
to top, of the southwestern intraplate Palmyride fold belt, with a list of related major
Arabian plate boundary tectonic events.
Red sea Gulf of Aden
East African
rift
Thermal hypothesis of Sleep. This was the first to recognise that
heating up the mantle (by a plume or whatever) could produce
substantial crustal uplift (and erosion), followed by thermal
subsidence. Compare the models by McKenzie and Wernicke later . .
The area looked like just before 760 m.y. At 760 m.y. ago, rifting of the crust resulted in
the creation of a rift valley.

At 570 m.y., the Blue Ridge was caught up in the rifting that opened
Iapetus ocean.
Passive (Atlantic-Type) Margins:

•found on continent-bearing plates


•continental margin moving away from the mid-ocean spreading center
•not characterized by mountain building
•zone of low seismicity and no volcanism – essentially stable
•characterized by thick sediment deposits and old oceanic crust
•comprised of shelf, slope, and rise
•examples include the eastern coasts of North and South America
Simplified relationships at a continental margin. There can be
more than 10 km of shallow-water sediments at the margin –
implying slow subsidence. How?
Sedimentation during rifting and on a passive margin

As a continent rifts apart, the nature of the sediments deposited in the


divergent zone will vary over time as the rifting progresses through
different stages (e.g., initial rift valley to linear sea to fully developed
ocean).
•Early lava flows and coarse (immature) sediments deposited during the
rift valley stage
•Evaporites (like halite) that precipitated in a shallow linear sea during
arid conditions;
•“Normal" sequence of mature sediments derived from the prolonged
weathering and erosion of the continental margin at the edge of a fully
developed ocean (e.g., sandstone [quartz arenite], limestone, shale...).
•Carbonate reefs (made of limestone) will only develop if the sea water is
warm enough.
• If the continent moves (by tectonic activity) into a colder climate, the
reefs will die and be overlain by clastic sediments.
Basin Classification II

•Ocean basins - created by rifting, resulting in deep ocean floor

•Subduction-related settings - seismically active continental


margins with deep-sea trenches, active volcanic arc, and arc-
trench separating (Aleutian Arc-Trench System)

•Strike-Slip basins - small pull-apart basins in response to


lateral fault movement (Los Angeles Basin; transform
marginal setting)
•Collision-related basins - foreland basin development in
response to thrust-loading of continent (Appalachian Basin)
Active (Pacific-Type) Margins

• continental margin moving toward a subduction zone


• characterized by volcanism, many earthquakes, and active mountain building
• friction of subducting plate causes earthquake activity and heat generation
• ocean crust is heated to melting point
• molten rock (magma) rises to the surface to create island arcs and volcanoes
• dense oceanic crust is subducted beneath thicker, less dense continental crust
• Chilean (e.g., Peru, Chile) - shallow trench, accretionary prism, volcanic mountains
• Marianas (e.g., Japan, Marianas) - deep trench, volcanic island arc, back-arc basin
• considered 'destructive'
Active (Pacific-Type) Margins:
•continental margin moving toward a subduction zone
•characterized by volcanism, many earthquakes, and active mountain building
•friction of subducting plate causes earthquake activity and heat generation
•ocean crust is heated to melting point
•molten rock (magma) rises to the surface to create island arcs and volcanoes
•dense oceanic crust is subducted beneath thicker, less dense continental crust
•Chilean (e.g., Peru, Chile) - shallow trench, accretionary prism, volcanic mountains
•Marianas (e.g., Japan, Marianas) - deep trench, volcanic island arc, back-arc basin
•considered 'destructive'
SUBDUCTION ZONES and ISLAND ARCS

Subduction Zones are where cool lithospheric


plates sink back into the mantle.
FRAMEWORK OF AN ISLAND ARC SYSTEM
The commonly held model of an arc - back-arc system has the following components:
(1) Subduction Zone
(2) Fore-arc region with accretionary sedimentary prism
(3) Frontal Arc
(4) Active Arc
(5) Marginal Basin with spreading centre
(6) Remnant Arc
(7) Inactive Marginal Basin
Although the extensive fore-arc region of many island arcs was thought to be composed
of off-scraped sediments, drilling has not substantiated this. It appears that - at least at
intraoceanic arcs - abyssal sediments on the downgoing plate are largely subducted.
That the back-arc region is a zone of asthenospheric upwelling is supported by seismic
evidence which suggests a low-Q (seismic attenuation) zone behind the arc, compatible
with a small amount of melt in the back-arc region:
MARGINAL BASINS & BACK ARC SPREADING
Marginal basins are small oceanic basins, usually adjacent or "marginal" to a
continent, which are separated from larger oceans by an island arc. Some
marginal basins at continental margins may be imperfectly developed and
represented by thinned crust, often associated with basic volcanism. Karig
(1971, 1974) divided marginal basins into:

(1) Active marginal basins with high heat flow.


(2) Inactive marginal basins with high heat flow.
(3) Inactive marginal basins with normal heat flow.

The first two are thought to have formed by back-arc spreading, either still
active (1), or recently active (2). The third may represent basins formed by
even older back-arc spreading, or normal ocean crust that has been "trapped"
behind a recently developed oceanic island arc.
Marginal basins are a common feature of the Western Pacific. Examples
(north to south) are the Sea of Japan, the West Philippine Basin, the Parace
Vela & Shikoku Basins, the Mariana Trough, the Woodlark Basin, the Fiji and
Lau Basins. By contrast marginal basins are rarer in the Eastern Pacific. The
two examples in the Atlantic are the Caribbean and the Scotia Sea.
Uprising Harzburgite Diapir:
This model (Oxburgh & Parmentier 1978) depends on the fact that refractory lithosphere
(which has lost its basalt component at mid-ocean ridges) is less dense and inherently more
buoyant than normal fertile mantle. Thus it would rise if heated to same temperature as
surrounding mantle. Such diapirs could in theory be derived from subducting lithosphere,
although it is doubtful that subducting lithosphere could be heated within 10 my; more likely
it takes 1000 - 2000 my according to megalith concepts of Ringwood (1982):
Convection-driven:
This model proposed by Toksoz & Bird (1978), and requires
that subsidiary convection cells are driven by the downward
drag of the downgoing slab. Calculations suggest that
spreading would occur about 10 my after the start of
subduction. This might explain why back-arc spreading is
more common in oceanic regions, the lithosphere is thinner
and thus more easily disrupted than under continents:
Passive Diapirism:

This results from regional extensional stresses in the the


lithosphere across the arc system. In effect the downgoing
slab, although acting like a conveyor belt, also has a vertical
component that causes "roll-back". The arc and forearc
then stays with the subduction zone, as a result of a
supposed trench suction force.
Active Diapirism:
One of the earliest models, based on the Mariana Arc
System, is that of an uprising diapir splitting the arc. The
diapir is initiated either as a result of frictional heating at
the subduction zone, or more likely through fluids
released from the dehydrating subducting slab. The
rising diapir then splits the arc in two and the two halves
are progressively separated by seafloor spreading:
Stepwise Migration:

Here it is assumed that the subducting slab is


snapped off near the hinge, presumably because
something on the downgoing slab is too light to
go down, and so a new subduction zone is
initiated oceanwards. The arc stays near the hinge
and the asthenosphere wells up behind it:
Sedimentation in active tectonic margins
Active tectonic margins are characterized by rapid erosion
from volcanic island arcs (like Japan), volcanic mountain chains
(like the Andes), or continental collision zones (like the
Himalayas).

 Rapidly eroded volcanic material will result in a muddy sand


with chunks of dark volcanic rock which later gets turned into
"greywacke".

 Rapidly eroded non-volcanic mountains generate an


abundance of pink K-feldspar and quartz grains from the erosion
of granites, which later gets transformed into "arkose".
Mountains form when two masses of continental crust collide. A. Subducting oceanic
lithosphere compresses and deforms sediments at the edge of continental crust on
overriding plate (left). Sediments at the edge of continental crust on subducting plate (right)
are undeformed. B. Collision. Sediment at the edge of continental crust on subducting plate
is deformed and welded onto already deformed continental crust on overriding plate. C.
After collision. The leading edge of the subducting plate breaks off and continues to sink.
The two continental masses are welded together, and a mountain range stands where once
there was ocean.
Foreland Basin

Foreland basins subside as a result of the load. The crust beneath the
thrust load is depressed as a result of isostacy and the adjacent crust is
depressed via flexure since it is attached.
Schematic diagrams comparing patterns of uplift and
subsidence in foreland and extensional basins during times
of active deformation (A) and quiescence (B).
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EXAMPLES OF BASIN TYPES

•Cratonic Basins (e.g. Illinois basin; Michigan basin)


•Rift Basins and Passive Margins (e.g. Viking Graben &
North Sea; Atlantic Margin)
•Flexure Basins (e.g. Baltimore Canyon Trough
•Fore-Arc Basins (e.g. Great Valley Basin)
•Intra-Arc and Backarc Basins (e.g. Nigata basin,
Hokkaido basin)
•Pull-Apart Basins (e.g. Los Angeles basin; Ridge basin;
Ventura basin, St. Georges basin
•Foreland Basins (e.g. Arkoma basin, Wyoming-Idaho
basin; Appalachian basin)
Tranaspression and transtension

Restraining bends result in compression. Releasing bends


result in extension and deep basins (pull-apart basins)
form.
The bend lead to push against each other,
preventing easy sliding, so this particular
bend is known as a "restraining" or
"convergent" bend resulting uplift of the
Transverse Ranges by the action of reverse
and thrust faults

If the plate motion were the opposite, and


the slip along the San Andreas fault became
left-lateral in nature, the existing bend
would cause extension in the area near the
bend and this bend would be called a
"releasing" or "divergent" bend (bottom
left). This action would likely cause a basin
to form around the bend
Basin Classification
Basin Classification
Basin Classification

• One of the most recent studies of basin-


forming processes (Mohriak, Hobbs and
Dewey, 1990) was done in Brazil.
• Deep wells, gravity and deep seismic data
provided a basis for this analysis.
Basin Classification
A. basins formed along active
master faults.
B. basins formed along inactive
faults.
C. basins with no fault control.
D. basins formed by low-angle
detachment faults.
E. basins containing crustal
thinning and Moho uplift.
F. basins formed by pervasive
pure shear, or an approximately
pure shear, where the lower crust
has been locally extended by a
different amount than the upper
crust.
Basin Classification

• Basin classification scheme comparison: plate tectonics scheme vs. Mohriak, Hobbs
and Dewey (1990).

• Plate Tectonic Basins 1990 Descriptive Basin Class


• Intracratonic sag basin C No major fault control
• Rift basin A Basins associated with active, deep penetrating master faults
• B Basins associated with major faults that do not control subsidence
• D Basins associated with low-angle detachment
• E Basins associated with crustal thinning and Moho uplift
• F Basins of almost unstretched crust carrying a thin veneer of sediments

• Divergent margin basins A, D or E


• Oceanic basins flanking
oceanic ridges Not foreseen or C
• Convergent margin basins A and D

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