Chapter 18

Operational Amplifiers
(Op-Amps)

Objectives
Discuss the basic op-amp
Explain the basic operation of a differential
amplifier
Discuss several op-amp parameters
Explain negative feedback in op-amp circuits
Analyze three op-amp configurations
Describe the effects of negative feedback on the
three basic op-amp configurations

Introduction to Operational
Amplifiers
The standard Operational amplifier has two input
terminals, the inverting (-) and noninverting (+)

Introduction to Operational
Amplifiers
The ideal op-amp has:
infinite voltage gain
an infinite input impedance (open)
does not load the driving source

zero output impedance

The practical op-amp has:

high voltage gain
high input impedance
low output impedance

The Differential Amplifier

A basic differential amplifier is shown below
There are two outputs, where the op-amp has one

It requires a negative and positive supply voltage

The Differential Amplifier

When a diff-amp is operated in single-ended input
mode, one input is grounded and the signal voltage
is applied only to the other input
In differential mode, two signals of opposite
polarity (out-of-phase) are applied to the inputs
also referred to as double-ended

Common-mode Input is the condition where two

signal voltages of the same phase, frequency and
amplitude are applied to the two inputs

The Differential Amplifier

Common-mode rejection describes the result when
input signals are applied to both inputs, the
outputs are superimposed and they cancel,
resulting in near zero output voltage
Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is a
measure of an amplifiers ability to reject commonmode signals
practical amplifiers exhibit a very small common-mode
gain (usually much less than 1)

The Differential Amplifier

A typical op-amp is made up of three types of
amplifier circuits:
Differential amplifier
Input stage for the op-amp; it has two inputs and
provides amplification of the difference voltage

Voltage amplifier
Usually a class A amplifier that provides gain

Push-pull amplifier
Class B amplifier is used for the output stage

Op-amp Parameters
Input Offset Voltage VOS
Input offset voltage is due to a slight mismatch of the
base-emitter voltages of the differential input stage
It is the differential dc voltage required between the
inputs to force the differential output to zero volts

Input Offset Voltage Drift with Temperature

Input offset voltage drift with temperature is a parameter
that specifies how much change occurs in the input offset
voltage for each degree change in temperature (typical
values range from 5 V to 50 V per degree Celsius)

Op-amp Parameters
Input Bias Current
Input bias current is the direct current required by the the
inputs of the amplifier to properly operate the first stage;
by definition, it is the average of both input currents

IBIAS = (I1 + I2)/2

Input Impedance
Differential input impedance is the total resistance
between the inverting and noninverting inputs; it is
measured by determining the change in bias current for a
given change in differential input voltage

Op-amp Parameters
Common-mode input impedance is the resistance
between each input and ground and is measured by
determining the change in bias current for a given change
in common-mode input voltage

Input Offset Current

Input offset current is the difference of the input bias
currents, expressed as an absolute value

IOS = |I1 - I2|

Actual magnitude of offset current is usually at least an
order of magnitude less than the bias current

Op-amp Parameters
Output Impedance
Output impedance is the resistance viewed from the
output terminal of the op-amp

Common-Mode Input Voltage Range

Common-mode input voltage range is the range of input
voltages which, when applied to both inputs, will not
cause clipping or other output distortion
Typically 10 V with dc supply voltages of 15 V

Op-amp Parameters
Open-Loop Voltage Gain, Aol
Open-loop voltage gain of the op-amp is the internal
voltage gain of the device and represents the ratio of output
voltage to input voltage when there are no external
components (set entirely by internal design)
Open-loop voltage gain can range to 200,000 or more

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is a measure of an
op-amps ability to reject common-mode signals

CMRR = Aol / Acm

Op-amp Parameters
Slew Rate
Slew rate of an op-amp is the maximum rate of change of the
output voltage in response to a step input voltage
Slew rate is dependent upon the frequency response of the
amplifier stages within the op-amp

Slew rate = Vout / t

Frequency Response
Frequency response of an op-amp has voltage gains limited
by junction capacitances
Low frequency response of an op-amp extends down to dc,
since there are no internal coupling capacitors

Op-amp Parameters

Negative Feedback
The inverting input (-)
effectively makes the
feedback signal 180
out of phase with the
input signal
When negative
feedback is present,
the noninverting and
inverting inputs are
nearly identical

Negative Feedback
Since the inherent open-loop gain of a typical opamp is very high, usually > 100,000, an extremely
small difference in the two input voltages drives
the op-amp into its saturated output states
The usefulness of an op-amp operated in this manner is
severely restricted and is generally limited to comparator
applications
With negative feedback, the overall closed-loop gain
(Acl) can be reduce and controlled so that the op-amp can
function as a linear amplifier

Op-amp Configurations with

Negative Feedback
Closed-loop voltage gain
Closed-loop voltage gain is the voltage gain of an opamp with negative feedback
An external feedback network connects the output to
the inverting input
The closed-loop voltage gain is determined by the
component values in the feedback network

Op-amp Configurations with

Negative Feedback
An op-amp connected
as a noninverting
amplifier has the input
signal applied to the
noninverting input, and
a portion of the output
applied back to the
inverting input through
the feedback network

Op-amp Configurations with

Negative Feedback
The feedback fraction, B, is determined by the
feedback network as:
B = Ri / (Ri + Rf)
The closed-loop voltage gain Acl(NI) of the
noninverting (NI) amplifier is not dependent on
the op-amps open-loop gain but can be set by
selecting values of Ri and Rf
Acl(NI) = (Rf / Ri) + 1

Op-amp Configurations with

Negative Feedback
The voltage-follower is
a special non-inverting
amplifier were all of
the output voltage is
fed back to the
inverting input
very high input
impedance
very low output
impedance

Op-AMP Configurations with

Negative Feedback
An op-amp connected
as an inverting
amplifier
Closed-loop gain is:

Acl(I) = - Rf / Ri
Closed-loop gain is
independent of the opamps internal openloop gain

Op-amp Impedances
Noninverting op-amp impedances
Input impedance of a noninverting amplifier is
greater than the internal input impedance of the
op-amp itself (without feedback)
Zin(IN) = (1 + AolB)Zin
Output impedance with the negative feedback is
less than the op-amp output impedance
Zout(NI) = Zout / (1 + AolB)

Op-amp Impedances
Voltage-follower impedances
Input impedance is greater than for the
noninverting configuration with the voltagedivider feedback circuit

Zin(VF) = (1 + Aol)Zin
Output impedance is much smaller than for a
noninverting configuration
Zout(VF) = Zout / (1 + Aol)

Op-amp Impedances
Inverting op-amp impedances
Input impedance approximately equals the
external input resistance because of the virtual
ground at the inverting input

Zin(I) Ri
Output impedance approximately equals the
internal output impedance of the op-amp

Zout(I) Rout

Summary
The op-amp has three terminals, not including
power and ground: inverting (-), noninverting (+),
and output
Most op-amps require both a positive and a
negative dc supply voltage
The ideal op-amp has infinite input impedance,
zero output impedance, infinite open-loop voltage
gain and infinite CMRR

Summary
A good practical op-amp has high input impedance,
low output impedance, and high open-loop voltage
gain
A diff-amp is normally used for the input stage of
an op-amp
A differential input voltage appears between the
inverting and noninverting inputs of a diff-amp
A single-ended input voltage appears between one
input and ground (with the other inputs grounded)

Summary
A differential output voltage appears between two
output terminals of a diff-amp
A single-ended output voltage appears between the
output and ground of a diff-amp
Common mode occurs when equal, in-phase
voltages are applied to both input terminal
Input offset voltage produces an output error
voltage (with no input voltage)

Summary
Input bias current also produces an output error
voltage (with no input voltage)
Input offset current is the difference between the
two bias currents
Open-loop voltage gain is the gain of the op-amp
with no external feedback connections
Slew rate is the rate (in volts per microsecond) that
the output voltage of an op-amp can change in
response to a step input

Summary
Negative feedback occurs when a portion of the
output voltage is connected back to the inverting
input such that it subtracts from the input voltage,
thus reducing the voltage gain but increasing the
stability and bandwidth
There are three basic op-amp configurations:
inverting, noninverting, and voltage-follower
All op-amp configurations (except comparators,
covered in the next chapter) employ negative
feedback

Summary
A noninverting amplifier configuration has a higher
input impedance and a lower output impedance than
the op-amp itself
An inverting amplifier configuration has an input
impedance approximately equal to the input resistor
Ri and an output impedance approximately equal to
the internal output impedance of the op-amp itself
The voltage-follower has the highest input
impedance and the lowest output impedance of the
three configurations