Hubs, Bridges and Switches

Lecture 3

Lecture 3 #1

Interconnecting LANs
Q: Why not just one big LAN?
Limited amount of supportable traffic: on single

LAN, all stations must share bandwidth

limited length: 802.3 (Ethernet) specifies
maximum cable length
large collision domain (can collide with many
stations)
limited number of stations: 802.5 (token ring)
have token passing delays at each station

Lecture 3 #2

Hubs
Physical Layer devices: essentially repeaters

operating at bit levels: repeat received bits on one

interface to all other interfaces
Hubs can be arranged in a hierarchy (or multi-tier
design), with backbone hub at its top

Lecture 3 #3

Hubs (more)
Each connected LAN referred to as LAN segment
Hubs do not isolate collision domains: node may collide

with any node residing at any segment in LAN

Hub Advantages:
simple, inexpensive device
Multi-tier provides graceful degradation: portions
of the LAN continue to operate if one hub
malfunctions
extends maximum distance between node pairs
(100m per Hub)

Lecture 3 #4

Hub limitations
single collision domain results in no increase in max

throughput
multi-tier throughput same as single segment
throughput
individual LAN restrictions pose limits on number
of nodes in same collision domain and on total
allowed geographical coverage
cannot connect different Ethernet types (e.g.,
10BaseT and 100baseT) Why?

Lecture 3 #5

Bridges
Link Layer devices: operate on Ethernet

frames, examining frame header and

selectively forwarding frame based on its
destination
Bridge isolates collision domains since it
buffers frames
When frame is to be forwarded on
segment, bridge uses CSMA/CD to access
segment and transmit
Lecture 3 #6

Bridges (more)
Bridge advantages:
Isolates collision domains resulting in higher
total max throughput, and does not limit the
number of nodes nor geographical coverage

Can connect different type Ethernet since it is

a store and forward device

Transparent: no need for any change to hosts

LAN adapters
Lecture 3 #7

Backbone Bridge

Lecture 3 #8

Interconnection Without Backbone

Not recommended for two reasons:

- single point of failure at Computer Science hub

- all traffic between EE and SE must path over CS segment

Lecture 3 #9

Bridges: frame filtering, forwarding

bridges filter packets
same-LAN -segment frames not forwarded onto
other LAN segments
forwarding:

how to know on which LAN segment to forward

frame?

Lecture 3 #10

Bridge Filtering
learn which hosts can be reached through
which interfaces: maintain filtering tables
when frame received, bridge learns location of
sender: incoming LAN segment
records sender location in filtering table
filtering table entry:
(Node LAN Address, Bridge Interface, Time Stamp)
stale entries in Filtering Table dropped (TTL can be
60 minutes)
bridges

Lecture 3 #11

Bridge Operation
bridge procedure(in_MAC, in_port,out_MAC)
Set filtering table (in_MAC) to in_port /*learning*/
lookup in filtering table (out_MAC) receive out_port
if (out_port not valid) /* no entry found for destination */
then flood; /* forward on all but the interface on
which the frame arrived*/
if (in_port = out_port) /*destination is on LAN on which
frame was received */
then drop the frame
Otherwise (out_port is valid) /*entry found for destination */
then forward the frame on interface indicate

Lecture 3 #12

Bridge Learning: example

Suppose C sends frame to D and D replies back with
frame to C

C sends frame, bridge has no info about D, so

floods to both LANs

bridge notes that C is on port 1

frame ignored on upper LAN
frame received by D

Lecture 3 #13

Bridge Learning: example

D generates reply to C, sends

bridge sees frame from D

bridge notes that D is on interface 2

bridge knows C on interface 1, so selectively

forwards frame out via interface 1

Lecture 3 #14

What will happen with loops?

Incorrect learning
B
2

A , 12

A , 12
1

A
Lecture 3 #15

What will happen with loops?

Frame looping
C
2

C,??

C,??
1

A
Lecture 3 #16

What will happen with loops?

Frame looping
B
2

B,2

B,1
1

A
Lecture 3 #17

Introducing Spanning Tree

Allow a path between every LAN without

causing loops (loop-free environment)

Bridges communicate with special
configuration messages (BPDUs)
Standardized by IEEE 802.1D

Note: redundant paths are good, active redundant paths are bad
(they cause loops)

Lecture 3 #18

Spanning Tree Requirements

Each bridge is assigned a unique identifier
A broadcast address for bridges on a LAN
A unique port identifier for all ports on all

bridges

MAC address
Bridge id + port number

Lecture 3 #19

Spanning Tree Concepts:

Root Bridge
The bridge with the lowest bridge ID value

is elected the root bridge

One root bridge chosen among all bridges
Every other bridge calculates a path to the
root bridge

Lecture 3 #20

Spanning Tree Concepts:

Path Cost
A cost associated with each port on each

bridge

default is 1

The cost associated with transmission onto

the LAN connected to the port

Can be manually or automatically assigned
Can be used to alter the path to the root
bridge

Lecture 3 #21

Spanning Tree Concepts:

Root Port
The port on each bridge that is on the path

towards the root bridge

The root port is part of the lowest cost
path towards the root bridge
If port costs are equal on a bridge, the
port with the lowest ID becomes root port

Lecture 3 #22

Spanning Tree Concepts:

Root Path Cost
The minimum cost path to the root bridge
The cost starts at the root bridge
Each bridge computes root path cost

independently based on their view of the

network

Lecture 3 #23

Spanning Tree Concepts:

Designated Bridge
Only one bridge on a LAN at one time is

chosen the designated bridge

This bridge provides the minimum cost path
to the root bridge for the LAN
Only the designated bridge passes frames
towards the root bridge

Lecture 3 #24

Example Spanning Tree

B8
B3
B5

Protocol operation:
B7

B2

3.

B1

B6

1.
2.

Picks a root
For each LAN,
picks a designated bridge
that is closest to the root.
All bridges on a LAN
send packets towards the
root via the designated
bridge.

B4

Lecture 3 #25

Example Spanning Tree

B8

Spanning Tree:

B3
B5

B1

root
port

B2

B7
B2

B4

B5

B7

B1

Root
B6

B8
Designated
Bridge

B4

Lecture 3 #26

Spanning Tree Algorithm:

An Overview

1. Determine the root bridge among all bridges

2. Each bridge determines its root port
The port in the direction of the root bridge

3. Determine the designated bridge on each LAN

The bridge which accepts frames to forward towards the
root bridge
The frames are sent on the root port of the designated
bridge

Lecture 3 #27

Spanning Tree Algorithm:

Selecting Root Bridge
Initially, each bridge considers itself to be

the root bridge

Bridges send BDPU frames to its attached
LANs
The bridge and port ID of the sending bridge
The bridge and port ID of the bridge the sending bridge
considers root
The root path cost for the sending bridge

Best one wins

(lowest root ID/cost/priority)

Lecture 3 #28

Spanning Tree Algorithm:

Selecting Root Ports
Each bridge selects one of its ports which

has the minimal cost to the root bridge

In case of a tie, the lowest uplink
(transmitter) bridge ID is used
In case of another tie, the lowest port ID
is used

Lecture 3 #29

Spanning Tree Algorithm:

Select Designated Bridges
Initially, each bridge considers itself to be

the designated bridge

Bridges send BDPU frames to its attached
LANs

The bridge and port ID of the sending bridge

The bridge and port ID of the bridge the sending bridge considers
root
The root path cost for the sending bridge

3. Best one wins

(lowest ID/cost/priority)
Lecture 3 #30

Forwarding/Blocking State
forward
frames to and from their attached LANs
All other ports are in the blocking state
Root and designated bridges will

Lecture 3 #31

Spanning Tree Protocol: Execution

B8
B3
B5
B7

B2
(B1,root=B1,dist=0)
B6
(B6, Root=B1dist=1)

B1

(B1,root=B1, dist=0)

B4
(B4, root=B1, dist=1)

Lecture 3 #32

Bridges vs. Routers

both store-and-forward devices
routers: network layer devices (examine network layer headers)
bridges are Link Layer devices
routers maintain routing tables, implement routing algorithms
bridges maintain filtering tables, implement filtering, learning

and spanning tree algorithms

Lecture 3 #33

Routers vs. Bridges

Bridges + and + Bridge operation is simpler requiring less
processing
- Topologies are restricted with bridges: a spanning
tree must be built to avoid cycles
- Bridges do not offer protection from broadcast
storms (endless broadcasting by a host will be
forwarded by a bridge)

Lecture 3 #34

Routers vs. Bridges

Routers + and + arbitrary topologies can be supported, cycling is

limited by TTL counters (and good routing protocols)

+ provide firewall protection against broadcast storms
- require IP address configuration (not plug and play)
- require higher processing
bridges do well in small (few hundred hosts) while

routers used in large networks (thousands of hosts)

Lecture 3 #35

Ethernet Switches
layer 2 (frame) forwarding,

filtering using LAN

addresses
Switching: A-to-B and Ato-B simultaneously, no
collisions
large number of interfaces
often: individual hosts,
star-connected into switch
Ethernet, but no
collisions!

Lecture 3 #36

Ethernet Switches
cut-through switching: frame forwarded

from input to output port without awaiting

for assembly of entire frame
slight reduction in latency
combinations of shared/dedicated,
10/100/1000 Mbps interfaces

Lecture 3 #37

Ethernet Switches (more)

Dedicated

Shared

Lecture 3 #38

Optional: Wireless LAN and PPP

Lecture 3 #39

IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN

wireless LANs: untethered (often mobile) networking
IEEE 802.11 standard:

MAC protocol
unlicensed frequency spectrum: 900Mhz, 2.4Ghz

Basic Service Set (BSS)

(a.k.a. cell) contains:

wireless hosts

access point (AP): base

station

BSSs combined to form

distribution system (DS)

Lecture 3 #40

Ad Hoc Networks
Ad hoc network: IEEE 802.11 stations can

dynamically form network without AP

Applications:
laptop meeting in conference room, car
interconnection of personal devices
battlefield
IETF MANET
(Mobile Ad hoc Networks)
working group
Lecture 3 #41

IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol:

CSMA/CA

802.11 CSMA: sender

- if sense channel idle for
DISF sec.
then transmit entire frame
(no collision detection)
-if sense channel busy
then binary backoff
802.11 CSMA receiver:
if received OK
return ACK after SIFS
Why?

Lecture 3 #42

IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol

802.11 CSMA Protocol:
others
NAV: Network Allocation

Vector
802.11 frame has

transmission time field

others (hearing data)

defer access for NAV

time units
Lecture 3 #43

Hidden Terminal effect

hidden terminals: A, C cannot hear each other

obstacles, signal attenuation

collisions at B
goal: avoid collisions at B
CSMA/CA: CSMA with Collision Avoidance

Lecture 3 #44

Collision Avoidance: RTS-CTS

exchange
CSMA/CA: explicit

channel reservation
sender: send short
RTS: request to send
receiver: reply with
short CTS: clear to
send
CTS reserves channel for
sender, notifying
(possibly hidden) stations
avoid hidden station
collisions
Lecture 3 #45

Collision Avoidance: RTS-CTS

exchange

RTS and CTS short:

collisions less likely, of

shorter duration
end result similar to
collision detection
IEEE 802.11 allows:
CSMA
CSMA/CA: reservations
polling from AP

Lecture 3 #46

Point to Point Data Link Control

one sender, one receiver, one link: easier

than broadcast link:

no Media Access Control
no need for explicit MAC addressing
e.g., dialup link, ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocols:
PPP (point-to-point protocol)
HDLC: High level data link control (Data
link used to be considered high layer in
protocol stack!)
Lecture 3 #47

PPP Design Requirements [RFC

1557]
packet framing: encapsulation of network-layer

datagram in data link frame

carry network layer data of any network layer
protocol (not just IP) at same time
ability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency: must carry any bit pattern in the
data field
error detection (no correction)
connection livenes: detect, signal link failure to
network layer
network layer address negotiation: endpoint can
learn/configure each others network address

Lecture 3 #48

PPP non-requirements
no error correction/recovery
no flow control
out of order delivery OK
no need to support multipoint links (e.g.,

polling)

Error recovery, flow control, data re-ordering

all relegated to higher layers!!!
Lecture 3 #49

PPP Data Frame

Flag: delimiter (framing)
Address: does nothing (only one option)
Control: does nothing; in the future possible

multiple control fields

Protocol: upper layer protocol to which frame
delivered (eg, PPP-LCP, IP, IPCP, etc)

Lecture 3 #50

PPP Data Frame

info: upper layer data being carried
check: cyclic redundancy check (CRC) for

error detection

Lecture 3 #51

Byte Stuffing
data transparency requirement: data field must

be allowed to include flag pattern <01111110>

Q: is received <01111110> data or flag?

Sender: adds (stuffs) extra < 01111101> byte

before each < 01111110> or <01111101> data byte

Receiver:
Receive 01111101
discard the byte,
Next byte is data

Receive 01111110: flag byte

Lecture 3 #52

Byte Stuffing
flag byte
pattern
in data
to send

flag byte pattern plus

stuffed byte in
transmitted data

Lecture 3 #53

PPP Data Control Protocol

Before exchanging networklayer data, data link peers
must
configure PPP link (max.
frame length, authentication)
learn/configure network
layer information
for IP: carry IP Control
Protocol (IPCP) msgs
(protocol field: 8021) to
configure/learn IP
address

Lecture 3 #54

Data Link: Summary

principles behind data link layer services:

error detection, correction

sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access
link layer addressing, ARP

various link layer technologies

Ethernet
hubs, bridges, switches
IEEE 802.11 LANs
PPP

Chapter 5 Kurose and Ross

Lecture 3 #55

Configuration Messages: BPDU

Lecture 3 #56